-vINCHELL 
SYLLABUS  OF  GENERAL  GEOLOGY 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


The  RALPH  D.  REED  LIBRARY 


DEPARTMENT  OF  OEOLOOY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 

Miss  Helen  F.  Fairbank; 


gift  of. 


SYLLABUS 


COURSES  OF  LECTURES  AND  INSTRUCTION 


GENERAL  GEOLOGY., 


FENCES  TO  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. 


BY  ALEXANDER  WINCHELL,  LL.  D. 


ANN   AIJBOIt: 

&  COMPANY, 

BOOKSELLERS  AND  I'un.i-i; 
1879. 


SYLLABUS 


COURSES  OF  LECTURES  AND  INSTRUCTION 


GENERAL  GEOLOGY, 


REFERENCES  TO  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. 


BY  ALEXANDER  WINCHELL,  LL.  D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  GEOLOGY  AND  PALAEONTOLOGY  IN  THE  UNIVEKSITY  OF  MICHIGAN. 


ANN  ARBOR : 

<fc    COMPANY, 
BOOKSELLERS  AND  PUBLISHERS. 
1879. 


The  solid  Earth  whereon  we  tread 
In  tracts  of  fluent  heat  began, 
And  grew  to  seeming  random  forms, 
And  seeming  prey  of  cyclic  storms. 
Till  at  the  last  arose  the  man." 


"  There  rolls  the  deep  where  grew  the  tree. 
Oh,  E«rth,  what  changes  hast  thou  seen  ! 
There,  where  the  long  street  roars,  hath  been 
The  stillness  of  the  central  sea. 

"  The  hills  are  shadows,  and  they  flow 

From  form  to  form,  and  nothing  stands. 

They  melt  like  mist— the  solid  lands 
Like  clouds  they  shape  themselves  and  go." 

In  Mfmoriam. 


Vidi  ego  quod  fuerat  quondam  solidissima  tellns 
*  Esse  fretum :  vidi  factas  ex  sequore  terras 
Et  procul  a  pelago  ronchae  jacuere  marina. 

vm:  Met. 


Ann  Arbor  Printing  and  Publishing  Company. 


nrary 


t  V, 


PREFACE, 


In  citing  sources  of  information,  the  references  are  generally  made 
first,  to  two  standard  text-books,  Dana's  "Manual  of  Geology,"  and 
Leconte's  "  Elements  of  Geology."  Following  these  are  frequent 
citations  of  other  text-books  and  manuals,  and  some  well-known  pop- 
ular works.  Often  the  references  extend  to  reports  of  original 
researches,  especially  those  of  American  origin.  It  has  been  the  aim, 
however,  to  quote  few  works  not  known  to  be  generally  accessible  to 
the  student.  In  a  few  cases,  nevertheless,  the  references  will  be  found 
sufficiently  complete  for  advanced  students.  Thus,  most  of  the  impor- 
tant original  sources  are  cited  under  the  subjects  of  Eozoon,  Fossil 
vegetation  of  America,  Extinct  American  Reptiles  and  Extinct  Amer- 
ican Mammals. 

Methods  of  minuter  research  are  indicated  in  the  "  Supplement," 
and  here  are  references  to  more  recondite  sources  of  information. 

A.  W. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN,  October,  1879. 


802015 


ABBREVIATIONS, 


A.  A.  A.  S.=Proceedingsof  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science. 

Ag.:  Sk.=L.  Agassiz  :  Geological  Sketches,  Boston,  1866. 

Am.  «/our.=American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  New  Haven,  Hid 
Series,  unless  otherwise  noted. 

Am.  2Va<.— American  Naturalist,  Salem,  Mass.,  now  Philadelphia. 

Bakewell :  GeoZ.=Bakewell  :  An  Introduction  to  Geology,  etc.,  Am. 
ed.,  Svo.,  1839. 

Bui.  Hayd.  SMr.=Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  and  Geographical 
Survey. 

Bid.  Nat.  Jlfus.=Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum. 

Can.  .ZVa£.=Canadian  Naturalist,  Montreal. 

Cook  ;  Geol.  N.  /.—Cook  :  Geology  of  New  Jersey,  1868. 

Gotta  :  Ore  Dep—  Cotta:  Treatise  on  Ore  Deposits,  New  York,  1869. 

Cuvier:  ZKscoMr-s.=Cuvier  :  Discours  sur  les  revolutions  du  globe,  1828. 

D.— Dana,  or  Dana :  Manual  of  Geelogy,  2d  ed.,  1874. 

Darwin:  Coral  Reefs.— €harles  Darwin:  Structure  and  Distribution  of 
Coral  Reefs. 

Daws.:  Story.— Dawson  :  The  Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man,  New  York, 
1873. 

Daws.:  Dawn.  =Daw son:  The  Dawn  of  Life,  New  York. 

De  la  B.:  06s.=De  la  Beche  :  The  Geological  Observer,  2d  ed.,  London, 
1853. 

Fig.:  World.=Figuier :  The  World  before  the  Deluge,  London  ed.,  1867. 

Fos.  &  Whit.:  L.  Sup. :=F 'oster  &  Whitney  :  Report  on  the  Geology  of 
the  Lake  Superior  Land  District,  1850-1. 

Hayd.:  Rep.=~H.ayden :  U.  S.  Geological  and  Geographical  Survey  of 
the  Territories. 

Hayd.  .Kcp.=Contributed  to  Hayden's  Report. 

Hux.=Huxley  :  The  Anatomy  of  Vertebrated  Animals,  Am.  ed.,  1872. 

King:  Rep.=King :  U.  S.  Geological  Exploration  of  the  Fortieth  Par- 
allel. 

King   JRe£>.=Contributed  to  King's  Report. 

L.=Leconte  :  Elements  of  Geology,  New  York,  1878. 

Log.:  Geol  Om.=Logan  :  Geology  of  Canada,  1863, 


—  6  — 

Ly.:  Man.=Lye\\ :  Manual  of  Elementary  Geology,  6th  ed.,  N.  Y.,  1857. 

Ly.:  JVm.=Lyell:  Principles  of  Geology,  8th  ed.,  1850. 

Newb.,  Ives'  Rep.=Newberry  in  Ives's  Report,  upon  the  Colorado 
River  of  the  West,  1861. 

Palxont.  /Soe.=Transactions  of  the  Palteontographical  Society,  London. 

P.  A.  N.  S.=Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Phila- 
adelphia. 

P.  A.  P.  S.=Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  Phil- 
adelphia. 

P.  B.  S.  N.  H.=Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 

Pop,  iS'c*.  .Jfon.— Popular  Science  Monthly,  New  York. 

Pow.  Rep.—  Powell :  U.  S.  Geographical  and  Geological  Survey  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

Pow.  .Ren.=Contributed  to  Powell's  Report. 

Q.  J.  G.  S.,  or  Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.=Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geolog- 
ical Society  of  London. 

Reel.:  Earth=E,&cl\i$  :  The  Earth,  etc.,  Am.  ed.,  1871. 

Reg.  .Rep.=Appendix  to  the  Report  of  the  Regents  of  the  University 
of  the  State  of  New  York  on  the  condition  of  the  State  Cabinet 
of  Nat.  Hist. 

Rep.  Coast.  Sun>.=Report  of  the  United  Status  Coast  Survey. 

W.=Winchell :  Sketches  of  Creation,  New  York,  1870. 

W.:  Geo>.  Mich.=Winche\\ :  First  Biennial  Report  of  the  Progress  of 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Mich.,  1861. 

W.:  G.  T.  tf^.^Winchell :  The  Grand  Traverse  Region,  1866. 

Wheeler  Rep.=Contributed  to  Wheeler's  Report,  U.  S.  Geograpical 
Surveys  west  of  the  100th  meridian. 

Whit.:  Met.  W.= Whitney  :  Metallic  Wealth  of  the  United  States,  1854. 

W.:  JftcA.=Winchell :  Michigan,  being  condensed  Popular  Sketches 
of  the  Topography,  Climate,  and  Geology  of  the  State,  1873 

Woodw.:  Man.  Mol.= Wood  ward  :  Manual  of  the  Mollusca. 


SYLLABUS, 


PART  I, 
INDUCTIVE  OR  POSITIVE  GEOLOGY, 


I.  OUTLOOK  OF  THE  SUBJECT. 

I.  Preliminary. 

'  1.  Distiction  between  Facts,  Doctrines  and  Speculations. 

(1.)  The  Facts  Demonstrable  to  the  senses  of  all. 

•  (2.)  Doctrines  are  accepted  Explanations  of  the  Facts. 

•  (3.)  Speculations  are  explanations  still  under  discussion — Possess  various  degree 

of  plausibility.     - 

•  (3.)  Inductive  or  Positive  Geology  deals  with  Facts  and  Doctrines. 

II.  G-eology  is  a  History.     (D.  4.) 

1.  History  of  the  Planet  (D.  1,  2,3)     --    History  of  its  organic  occu- 

pants. (D.  2,  5.) 

2.  Data  or  Materials  of  the  History  are  Relics  of  former  conditions 

of  the  earth  and  its  occupants.    (D.  4-5.) 

3.  Mineral  masses    —    Animal  remains    —    Vegetable  remains. 

4.  Mineralogy  and  Chemistry     --    Zoology     —    Botany. 

5.  The  earth  also  an  Astronomical  bod}'. 

6.  Its  Form,  Density  and    Movements   determined  by  Mechanical 

principles    --    And  these  are  Mathematical  relations. 

7.  Geology  the  Science  to  which  all  other  sciences  are  ancillary. 

III.  The  Starting  Point  of  Investigation. 

1.  Phenomena  presented  \>y  a  Drift-covered  s'urface. 

2.  Phenomena  presented  by  an  outcrop  of  Stratified  rocks. 
(1.)  The  stratified  condition    —    Sedimentation,  Lect.  VI. 

(2.)  Relics  of  aquatic  creatures    —    Fossils    -^    Paleontology. 

(3.)  Indications  of  marine  origin. 

(4.)  Wide  existence  of  such  phenomena. 


3.  The  phenomena  presented  by  an  outcrop  of  Unstratified  rocks. 

(D.  107-8,  L.  205-11.) 
(1.)  Crystalline    —    Non-fossiliferous. 

(2.)  The  rocks  traceable  to  a  fissure  through  stratified  beds.    (L.  205-7.) 
(3.)  Indications  of  igneous  origin. 

4.  Succession  in  superposition  of  rocks. 
(1.)  Often  seen  in  a  high  hill  or  mountain  slope. 
(2.)  Often  in  traveling  orer  a  level  country. 

(3.)  Persistence  in  order  of  superposition. 

5.  Discontinuity  of  strata.  (D.  96.) 

(1.)  In  consequence  of  erosions   —    Illustration. 

(2.)  lu  consequence  of  non-deposition. 

(3.)  Land  and  sea-covered  areas. 

(4.)  Geological  sections    —    Illustration.    (D.  148, 166.) 

(5.)  Geological  maps    —    Illustrations.    (D.  144.) 

IV.  Determination  of  the  Normal  Series  of  Rocks. 

1.  Generalization  from  many  observations. 

2.  An  Ideal  section  of  the  known  rocks.     (Chart.) 
(1.)  A  graduation  of  rocks  from  top  to  bottom. 

(2.)  Indications  of  successive  depositions. 
(3.)  Indications  of  progressive  cooling. 
(4.)  Progressive  changes  in  organization. 
"V     (5.)  General  classification  of  the  rocks.    (D.  133-43;  L.  269-71.) 

f  Cenozoic.      •) 

Aqueous  or      I  Mesozoic.       J.  stratified  and  Fossiliferous. 
Sedimentary.  |  Palaeozoic,     j 

[  Eozoic.    Imperfectly  stratified.    Few  fossils. 
Igneous  or  crystalline.    Of  all  ages.    No  fossils. 


II.  RECORDS  OF  PAST  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  EARTH. 

I.  Traces  of  past  conditions  the  Material  of  the  History. 

1.  Certain  terrestrial  changes  in  visible  progress. 

2.  Similar  results  traceable  indefinitely  into  the  past. 

II.  Traces  of  the  former  action  of  the  Sea. 

1.  Fossil  shells  far  from  the  sea  and  at  high  altitudes. 

(1.)  Ancient  opinions  concerning  them.  (Lyell:  Prin.  Bk.  i,  ch.  iii.;  Marsh.  Sara- 
toga Add.  Am.  Asso.,  1879 :  Hallam :  Literature  of  Europe,  i.,  228-30)  —  "  Freaks 
of  Nature"— "Plastic  Power"  —  "  Experimental  Moulds "  —  "Fortuitous 
Concourse  of  atoms"  —  "  The  Mosaic  Deluge"  —  "  Influence  of  the  Stars." 

(2.)  They  are  genuine  debris  —  Illustrations  from  the  remains  of  shore-shells  or  of 
human  industry.  (W.  18-22.) 

2.  Sea-beaches  far  inland  Valley  of  St.  Lawrence.  (D.  549  ;  Ly. 

Prin.,  178,  482;  De  la  Beche:  Observer,  445-57.) 

3.  Changes  of  sea-level  actually  observed.     (D.  582-5;  L.  127;   W. 

19-25;  De  la  Beche:  Obs.,  435-44;   R6clus,  527-55,  562-7,  map  of 
upheavals  and  depressions.) 


—  9  — 

(1.)  Scandinavia.    (D.  582:  L.  129;  Lyell,  Prin.,  499-511;  Reel  us,  531.) 
V  (2.)  Temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis.    (D.  584 ;  Lee.,  127-8;  W.  19 ;  Lyell,  Prin.,  489.) 

(8.)  Old  Roman  roads.    (Ly.  Prin.,  493.) 

(4.)  Oscillations  observed  in  America.  (Cook:  Geol.  N.  J.,  350-73;  Dawson,  Quar. 
Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  xi.,  119  ;  Hitchcock :  Geol.  Mass.,  307;  Jackson :  Geol.  N.  H.,  280 ; 
Long  Island  Hist.  Soc.,  May,  1868 ;  Reclus,  eh.  Ixxxiv.)  —  Subsidence  at  St.  Au- 
gustine, Fla.  — ^  Elevations  in.Pamlico  Sound  — *  Subsidence  on  the  coast  of 
N.  J.  —  fan  Nantucket  Harbor  —  Elevations  along  the  New  England 
Coast— Rotation  of  Grand  Manan  —  '  Rotation  of  Nova  Scotia  —/ Submer- 
gence of  the  site  of  Louisbourg,  (Cape  Breton.)  — x  Six  hundred  miles  of  the 
coast  of  Greenland  sinking  for  600  years.  (D.  583;  L.  129  ;  Reclus,  555.) 
"  (5.)  Sea-waves  on  the  coast  of  Chili  and  Peru  in  1590, 1730, 1751, 1822, 1835,  1837,  1868' 
1877.  (D.  585.  662,  742 ;  L.  130;  Lyell :  Prin.,  435,  439,  481  -Pop.  Sei.  Monthly,  Sup, 
Dec.,  1877 ;  Hep.  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  1862, 1869.) 

(6.)  Actual  emergences  of  hew  islands.    (W.  23;  Reclus,  489-96;  Lyell:  Prin.,  416) 

425,449)    —    Graham,  I.,  1831    —    Sabrina  in  the  Azores,  (De  la  Beche :  06s. 

100-1)    —    Santorin,  (De  la  Beche:  06s.,  391-7.)    —   Aleutians,  1806, 1814    —    In 

the  Pacific.    (D.  84)    —    Conjecture  concerning  the  Symplegades. 

X£7.)  Effects  of  a  moderate  depression  in  Illinois.    (Bannister :   Geol.  III.,  iii.,  241,) 

III.  Traces  of  the  former  action  of  Heat. 
1.  Baked  sandstones,  limestones  and  shales. 

'2.  Refrigerated  molten  rocks.  —  In  western  U.  S.  (L.  207  ;  King  i., 
545-677 ;  Gilbert  in  Wheeler  Rep.  iii.,  118-131,  525-41 ;  Howell  in 
id.,  297  ;  Stevenson  in  id.,  411-25;  King,  Am.  Nat.,  xi.,  459.  See 
further  Lect,  XXVI.) 

3.  Some  traces  of  fire  older  than  those  of  water. 

IV.  Unextinguished  Fires.     (D.  699.) 

1.  Volcanoes.  (D.  702-16;  L.  81-93;  Ly.,  Prin.,  526-32;  De  la  Beche, 
Obverv.,  317-48 ;  Bakewell :  Geol.,  311-44  ;  R<§clus,  419-52;  458-74; 
See  further  Lect.  XXVI.) 

^  2.  Hot  springs.  (D.  692  ;  Ly.  Prin.,  238-49  ;  Gilbert,  Wheeler  Rep.,  iii., 
150  [136  localities  in  U.  S.]  :  Hayden,  Ann.  Rep.,  1871,  64-198 
[Geysers]  ;  Bakewell,  Geol,  443,  447-50 ;  Reclus,  234-7.  See  fur- 
ther, Lect.  XXVI.) 

3.  Mines  and  tunnels.  (Nature,  3  Apr.,  1879,  510)— Mont  Cenis 
(Matthew,  Canad.  Nat.,  vi.,  96)  —  'St.  Gothard  (Geol.  Rep.,  Italy, 
1873,  Nature,  30  Jan.  1879,  303)  —  On  the  Comstock  lode  (Church, 
Am.  Jour.,  xvii.,  289)  Sutro  tunnel,  N.  Y.  Daily  Tribune,  6 

Sept.  1879,  diagrams.) 

i  4.  Artesian  borings.  (D.  699 ;  Ly.  Prin.,  236  ;  De  la  B6che  :  06s.,  463-7 
Rfclus,  233,  480-8)  --  Alabama  (W.  Proc.  Am.  Asso.,  1856  — 
St.  Louis  (Litton:  Trans.  St.  Louis  Acad.,  i.,  84  ;  Brodhead:  Mo. 
Geol.  Rep.,  34)  --  Sperenberg  (Nature,  11  Jan.,  1877.) 

V.  Foundation  Stones  of  the  Land.        -    Granites,  Gneisses,  and 

other  rocks  bearing  marks  of  fire.     (Lect.  III.) 

VI.  Records  of  Extinct  Populations.    (Lects.  IV.-XVII.) 


—  10  — 
I1L  THE  OLDEST  KNOWN  ROCKS. 


On  Rocks,  see  Von  Cotta:  Rock*  classified  and  described,  London  ed.,  1866;  Blum  : 
Handbuch  der  Lithotogle  und  Gesteinlehfe,  Erlangen,  1860 ;  Brooks :  Geology  of  Iron  Region 
of  Mieh.  in  Geology  of  Mich.,  i,  chap,  iii.-iv.;  Julien,  in  Oeol.  of  Mich.,  ii.;  Hawes  in  Hitch- 
cock's Geol.  of  y.  If.,  pt.  iv.,  Mineralogy  and  Lithology,  in  vol.  iii.:  Foster  and  Whitney: 
Geology  of  Lake  Superior  Land  District;  Zirkel:  Lehrbuch  der  Petrographie,  Bonn,  1866, 
•_'  vols..  8vo,;  Zirkel :  Die  Mikroskopisc.he  Beschaffenheit  der  Mineralien  und  Qesteine,  Leip- 
zig, 1873,  8vo.;  Rosenbusch :  Mikroskopische  Physiographic  der  Mineralien  und  Gesteine. 
Bin  Hulfsmittel  bei  mikroskopischen  Gesteinstudien.  Stuttgart,  1873,  2  vols.,  8vo. 

I.  Earliest  Bocks  on  a  cooling  Planet. 

1.  Hypothesis  of  a  fire-formed  crust.    (D.  146-7.) 
1.  Commencement  of  sedimentation.     (D.  147.) 

(1.)  Implies  a  cooled  rock-surface  and  an  ocean.    (D.  147.) 

(2.)  Chemical  Precipitation  in  Primeval  Ocean.    (D.  147;  W.  60-1;  Hunt:  Chem.  and 

Geol.  Estays,  iid  paper) 

(3.)  Vast  accumulation  of  stratified  materials.    (D  147.) 
3.  Cause  of  disappearance  of  fire-formed  crust. 
(1.)  The  Isogeothermal  plane. 

(2.)  Ascent  of  isogeothermal  planes  as  sediments  accumulate. 
(3.)  Progressive  Melting  or  softening  of  under  surface  of  crust. 
(4.)  Progressive  Metamorphism  at  higher  levels. 

II.  Classification  and   thickness  of  Archaean    rocks.      ( D.    140,    146; 

Hitchcock  :  Geol.  N.  H    ii.,  468  ;  Hunt :  Chem.  and  Geol.  Essays. 
TjccmunC^ 

1      (Upper.      ( 

I  Huronian.  ^  ^20,000  feet. 

(Lower.      ( 

iEozoic.    I  Labradprian,     10,000) 
V  30  000  feet 
Laurentian,       20,000  J 


PYROLITHIC  (Hypothetical.)  ^  * 


[A  "  Montalban  "  series  is  placed  by  T.  S.  Hunt  above  the  Huronian,  and  by  C.  H. 
Hitchcock  below  the  Labradorian.J 

III.  Surface  exposures  of  Archaean  Books. 

1.  The  Fundamental  Rocks  everywhere. 

2.  The  great  nuclear  area  in  British  America,  and  its  appendages  in 

N.  Y.,  Mich.,  and  Wis.  (D.  150,  160;  W.  74;  Daws.:  Dawn,  7,  8; 
Foster  and  Whitney:  L.  Sup.,  Pt.  ii.,  8;  Irving:  Geol.  Wis.,  1877 
461-524.) 

3.  The  Appalachian  system  of  areas.     (D.  150.) 

4.  Trans-Mississippi   exposures.     (King  i.,  15-98.    See  also    Lects. 

XXIIL,  XXIV.,  XXV. 


—  11  — 

IV.  Kinds  of  Rocks. 

1.  Laurentian   predominantly    granitoid,   of    both    micaceous    and 

hornblende  series.  (D.  151,  67-70.)  -•  Also  crystalline  lime- 
stones. (D.  151 ;  Logan  :  Geol.  Can.,  1863).  --  Iron  ores.  (Per- 
haps those  of  Mich.,  D.  151,  159.  See  below.)  Graphite. 
(D.  151,  152  ;  Logan  :  Geol.  Can.,  ch.  iii.  and  586-93  ;  Daws.:  Dawn, 
18,  27-33.  See  also  general  references  above.) 

2.  Huronian  predominantly  quartzose.     Also    diorites,   limestones, 

iron  and  copper  ores.  (D.  159;  Logan:  Geol'.  Can.,  ch.  iv.,  and 
594-6;  572-87;  Brooks  in  Geol.  Mich.,  p.  1-319;  Pumpelly,  Geol, 
Mo.,  31-214;  Moore,  in  Geol.  Mo.,  1874,  638-71.) 

3.  Richness  in  Minerals.     (D.  151-2.) 

V.  Condition  of  the  Strata. 

1.  Highly  disturbed.     (D.  153;  L.  272-3.)     --     Sections.    (D.  148,  153  ; 

L.  273;  Hitchcock:  Geol.  N.  H.,  ii.,  15-36;  King,  i.,  Diagr.,  pi.  i.; 
ch.  ii..  pi.  ii.,  and  Atlas,  Map  L,  sections;  Brooks:  Geol.  of  Mich., 
i.,  184  ;  Daws.:  Dawn,  13 ;  Campbell :  Am.  Jour.,  xviii.,  19,  121, 
showing  relations  of  newer  rocks.) 

2.  Metamorphic    --    Explanation.     (D.  724 ;  Bischof :  Chemical  Ge- 

ology; Daubree :  Etudes  synthetiques  de  Geologic  experimental; 
Hunt:  Chemical  and  Geological  Essays.) 

3.  Subjected    to   enormous  denudation.      (Lects.  XXVIII.,  XXIV. 

XXVII.) 


IV.  THE  DAWN  OF  LIFE. 


DAWSON  :  The  Dawn  of  Life. 

I.  A  hypothetical  Protophytic  period. 

1.  A  strictly  inorganic  period  must  have  existed.     (D.  146.) 

2.  Mutual  dependence  of  the  kingdoms  of  life. 

3.  The  vegetable  the  necessary  forerunner  of  the  animal. 

4.  Geological  indications  of  early  Laurentian  vegetation. 

II.  Remains  supposed  Organic  in  Laurentian  strata.    Daws.,  as 

above.) 

1.  These  strata  once  known  as  "  Azoic."     (Foster  &  Whitney  :  Geol. 

Lake  Sup.,  pt.  ii.,  8.) 

2.  Suspicions  based  on  iron-ores  and  graphites.  (Hunt :  Am.  Jour.,  II., 

xxv.,  431 ;    Dawson  :  Dawn,  24-7.)  A  deductive  discovery 

as  in  exact  science. 

3.  Organisms  found  Oct.  1858.    (Logan  :    Canad.   Nat.,  iv.,  300 ;  Geol. 

Can.,  49;  Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  Feb.  I860;  W.  435-7.) 


—  12  — 

(1.)  Stratigraphical  position.    (D.  158.)    —     Mineral  Associations.    (Daws.:  113-26 ; 

Hoffman:  Am.  Jour.  Set.,  i.,  378;  Jour. f. prakt.  Chemie,  May,  1869.) 
(2.)  Eozoon  canaderwe  as  found    —    Description  and  illustrations.    (D.  158 :  L.  275 ; 

W.68;  Daws.:  Dawn,  59-93. 
(4.)  Its  zoological  affinities.      Dawsonand  Carpenter  :  Quar.  Jour.  Geol.,  Soc.,  Feb., 

1865 :  Daws.:  Dawn,  59-93     —     Anuzba  and  Actinophrys.    (W..  70 ;  Daws.:  Dawn 

60)    —    Compare  StromatoporidiE.    (W.  Proc.  Am.  Asso.,  1866.) 
(4.)  Its  mode  of  Life.    (Daws.:  Dawn,  69-71.) 

4.  Foraminifera  in  all  ages.    (D.  131,  460,  471  ;  Daws.:  Davon.,  62-5, 

72-6.— Their  work  in  building  up  the  continents.  (D.  512; 
Daws.:  Story,  241-3 ;  Fig.:  World,  241-4)  Numimilites  and 

their  structure.  (D.  131,  515.)  —  Nummulitic  limestone  of 
the  Pyramids.  (D.  512;  L.  485)  Orbitoides  in  America. 

(Daws.:  Story,  241.) 

5.  Organic  Nature  of  Eozoon  questioned  King  and  Rowney. 

(Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  Aug.,  1866;  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  II.,  xliv.,375; 
Proc.  Royal  Jrish  Acad.,  July,  1869,  and  Jan.  and  Apr.,  1871 ;  Am. 
Jour.,  L,  68,  138-42;  ii.,  211-5.)  Burbank  (Proc.  Am.  Assoc., 

1871,262-6)    —  Carter.     (  )     --    Otto  Hahn. 

(cited  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  June,  1872,  492)— Karl  Mobius.  (Palseonto- 
graphica,  1878,  vol.  xxv.,  Republished  separately  :  see  account  in 
Nature,  17  and  24  July,  1879.  See  also  Mobius  in  Am.  Jour.  Sci., 
xviii.,  177,  Sep.  1879)  --  Otto  Kuntze.  (Nature,  28  Aug.,  1879.) 

6.  All  objections  promptly  met.     (Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  Aug.,  1866! 

Carpenter:  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  No.  xciii.,  503;  Hunt:  Proc.  Roy.  Irish 
Acad.,  July  12,  1869;  Carpenter:  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  June.  1874; 
Daws.:  Dawn,  169-206;  Am.  Jour.,  xvii.,  196,  March,  1879;  Car- 
penter and  Dawson :  Nature,  31  July,  1879. 

III.  Conditions  of  Land  and  Water  when  Eozoon  appeared. 

1.  No  positive  evidence  of  land.  But  the  Laurentian  rocks  are 

partly  fragmental. 

2.  The  sea  still  in  a  tempestuous  state. 

IV.  A  long  pause  through  the  Huronian  Age.— Probable  future 

discoveries    —    Supposed  foreign  equivalents. 


V.  GEOLOGICAL  CLASSIFICATION. 


I.  Two  Geological  Conceptions,  Time  and  Events. 
1.  Events  or  results  of  geological  activity. 

(4.)  Among  the  Rocks :  —  They  differ  in  Constitution.  — '  Silicious,  Aluminous 
and  Calcareous.  (D.  65;  Lyell:  Man.,  11-12.)  —  They  differ  in  relations  of 
Position.  Unconformability.  (D.  100.)  This  implies  changes  of  level 

of  sea-bottom.    —    Marks  boundary  line  in  succession  of  deposits.    (L.  269.) 


—  13  — 

(2.)  Among  the  Fossils:  —  Progressive  change.  —  Sudden  transitions.  — 
Generally  corresponds  with  unconformability.  (King:  Am.  Nat.,  xl., 469.)  — 
Transitions  graduated  by  new  discoveries.  —  Have  cataclysms  occurred? 
(Cuvier:  Discours;  Lyell :  Prin.)  —  The  truth  lies  between  the  cataclysmic, 
and  the  uniformitarian  theories.  (King:  Am.  Nat.,  xi.,  461-70;  L.  288,  317,  333, 
495.) 

2.  Time    -  -    Marked  off  by  events    -  -    Greater  and  less  divisions 
of  time    --    Corresponding  significance  of  the  events. 

II.  Terms  employed. 

1.  Rocks:— Layer,  Stratum,  Formation.     -          Formations  arranged 
in  Sub-groups  or  Stages,  Groups,  Systems  and  Great  Systems. 

2.  Time :  Arranged  in  Epochs,  Periods,  Ages  and  Times  or 

^Eous. 

3.  Correlation  of  terms  in  relation  to  Rocks  and  Time. 

In  reference  to  Time.  In  reference  to  Rocks.  Examples. 

TIMES  or  .EONS.  GREAT  SYSTEMS.  Eozoic,  Paleozoic. 
AGES.  SYSTEMS.  Laurentian,  Silurian. 

Periods.  Groups.  Primordial,  Canadian. 

Epochs.  Stages.  Acadian,  Potsdam. 

4.  Geographical  origin  of  proper  names. 

III.  General  Historical  Classification  of  Bocks  and  Geological 

Time.  (D  140;  L.  201 ;  W.  437-8,  and  Geol.  Chart;  Marsh:  Am. 
Jour.,  xvi.,  pi.  iv.  -  -  European  Equivalents.  (Cope,  Bulletin 
Hayden  Survey,  v.  50-1 ;  W.:  Geol.  Chart.) 

IV.  Intrusive  Bocks.  Veins.     (D.  108;  L.  225-39;  Wb.itn.ey : 

Metallic  Wealth  U.  S.;  v.  Cotta  *  Ore  Deposits.)  •  Dikes.  (D. 
109,111.)  --  Faulting.  (D.  Ill ;  L.  222-5.  See  further  Lect. 
XXVI.) 

VI.  SEDIMENTATION. 

De  La  Beche :  Geological  Observer,  chaps,  v.,  vi.,  and  vii.;  Dana  :  Manual,  649,  665-674. 

I.  Constitution  of  Sediments 

1.  Chemical   Precipitation.     (De  la  Beche:  06s.,  102-111;  Bischof: 

Chemical  Geology. 

(1.)  Most  active  in  primeval  ocean.    —    Sketch  of  reactions.    (W.  59-61.) 
(2.)  Always  in  progress  to  some  extent.    —    Submarine  emanations.     —    Certain 

mineral  springs.    —    Evaporation.    (De  la  Beche,  106.) 
(3.)  Mostly  calcareous.    —    Often  gypseous  and  saline.     —    In  the  primitive  sea 

partly  aluminous  and  silicious. 

2.  Organic  Deposits.     (De  la  Beche,  112-64  ;  D.  59-62,  606-626.) 

(1.)  In  bulk.  (D.614.)  —  Exuviae  of  molluscs.  L.  153,)  —  Foraminifera.  (D. 
477,671 ;  L.  453-4;  Bailey,  Smithsonian  Contributions,  ii.,  and^m.  Jour.  II.,  xvii., 
176,  xxii.,  282 ;  Pourtales :  Trans.  Am.  As$o.,  1850.,  84,  and  Rep.  Coast  Survey,  1853, 
1858,  Letter  to  Prof.  Bache,  17  May,  1862.)  —  Vitalized  stony  growths.  — 
Corals.  (D.  59,  617-26 ;  L.  138-53 ;  Dana :  Corals  and  Coral  Islands.) 


—  14  — 

3.    Pulverized.    --    About  reefs.  Disintegrated  exuviae.    (D. 

615,  621.) 
3.  Fragmental  deposits.     (D.  667.) 

(1.)  Of  Littoral  origin.    (D.647;    L.31,36.) 
(2.)  Of  Fluviatile  origin.    (D.  647  ;    L.  20,  22.J 

II.  Cementing  Materials.  Carbonate  of  lime.    (D.  692.) 

Silica.     (D.693,  725.)    --    Oxyd  of  iron.     (D.  695.) 

III.  Coloring  Materials,        -     Yellow,  red  and  black  iron  oxyds. 

-    Iron  silicate.    --    Maganese.     (D.  759.) 

IV.  Sediments  in  relation  to  Distance  from  Shore. 

1.  Littoral  deposits  coarser. 

2.  Deep-water  deposits  finer.     (L.,40.)    —    Diminished  in  volume. 

3.  Deep-water  deposits  often  calcareous.     (D.  671.) 

4.  Local  variations  in  the  same  sheet  of  sediments.     (D.  80,  666-7.  — 

Conglomerates,  sandstones,  aluminous  sandstones,  Shales,  calcar- 
eous shales,  limestones.  (D.  667,  669-72.)  Cross-bedding, 
(D.  82,  83;  Hayden,  Rpp.,  1874,  pi.,  vi,)  These  variations 
well  illustrated  in  North  America.  (D.  670,  671,  et  passim.) 

5.  Effect  of  slow  submergence  or  emergence.    -  -    Extension  of  lit- 

toral deposits.     (D.  672-3.) 

V.  The  Sedimentary  Cycle.    (W.  133-6,  1870;  Newb.:  Geol.  0.,  ii., 

82-3,  1874;  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  S.,  1874,  185-96;  Edward  Hull:  Q.  Jour. 
G.  /S'.,  xviii.,  127-46,  1862  ;  Geol.  Mag.,.v.  143 ;  Quar.  Jour  Sci.,  vi., 
353  ;  Dawson  :  Q.  J.  G.  S.,  xxii.,  101-3, 1865 ;  Acadian  Geol.,  135 ; 
Address  before  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  Montreal,  1865 ;  Compare  Hunt: 
Geol.  Can.,  1863,  576-8  ;  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  II.,  xxxv.,  1863,  167  ;  Eaton: 
Geol.  Text  Book,  1832,  and  Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xxiii.,  281 ;  Worthen  : 
Geol.  Ill,  i.,  112-3,  1866. 

1.  Graduated  intensity  of  action  through  each  period. 

2.  Deposits  graduated  accordingly.  Coarse  Fragmeutal,  Fine 

Fragmental,  Calcareous,  Calcareo-fragmental.     (D.  80.) 

3.  Each  system  and  group  presents  a  cycle  of  sediments.    —    Illus- 

trate.    (W.  134.) 

4.  Prominence  of  the  Limestone  mass  in  each  cycle.       —      This  a 

conspicuous  landmark  for  identification,    (W.  135-6.) 

VH.  THE  REIGN  OP  TRILOBITES,  OR  THE  LOWER  SILURIAN 
AGE. 

See  official  Geological  Reports,  especially  those  of  New  York,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Canada. 
Murchison :  The  Silurian  System,  and  Siluria. 

On  the  general  subject  of  Palaeontology  see  NICHOLSON  :  Manual  of  Palxcmtology,  and 
PICTKT  :  Paleontologie,  4  vols.  and  Atlas  of  110  plates. 


—  15  — 

For  list  of  lower  Silurian  Fossils,  see  Miller :  The  Americun  Palseozoic  Fossils,  1877 ; 
Bigsby :  Thesaurus  Siluricus,  1868. 

For  complete  bibliography,  see  C.  A.  White's,  Bibliography  of  North  American  Inver- 
tebrate Paleontology,  1878,  Hayden  Survey,  "  Miscellaneous  Publications;"  No.  10, 1878,  and 
Supplement  to  Bibliography,  from  "  Bulletin  "  of  the  Survey,  vol.  5,  No.  1,  28  Feb.  1879. 
I.  Lower  Silurian  Bocks. 

1.  General  aspect.     —     Mineral  constitution  and  condition. 

2.  Relations  to  the  Eozoic.     (L.  281.)  Unconforinability.      — 

Sections.  (D.  166;  W.  84;  L.  277;  Campbell:  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,- 
xviii.,  19,  121.) 

3.  Groups :— Primordial,  Canadian  and  Trenton.     (D.  163.)    —  Place 

of  the  Galena  limestone.     (D.  196, 197.) 

4.  Exposures :— (1.)   St.  Johns,  N.  B.  Georgia,  Vt.;  Braintree,  Mass.;  Minn.;  Wis.; 

Lake  Superior.     (W.-  82-93;  Foster  and  Whitney;  Geol.  L.  Sup.;  Brooks;  Geol. 

Mich.;  Black  Hills,  Dak.    (N.  H.    Winchell :  Ludlow's  Sep.  on  Black  Hills,  1874, 

63-4,  and  Geol.  Map. 

(2.)  Cincinnati,  O.;  Richmond,  Ind.;  Lexington  and  Frankfort,  Ky. 
(3.)  Nashville.  Tenn.  (Geol.  Tenii.) 

(4.)  St.  Joseph's  I.;  Little  Bay  de  Noquet,  etc.,  Mich.  (W.:  Mich.,  50.) 
(5.)  St.  Anthony's  Falls,  Minn.  (N.  H.  Winchell:  Geol.  Rep.  Minn.) 
(6.)  Trenton  Falls,  N.  Y.;  Watertown,  Potsdam,  etc.,  N.  Y. 

5.  Sections :— New  York.     (D.  16;  Hall:  Geol.   N.    Y.,  4th  Dist.  27.) 

—  Canada.  (Geol.  Can., 847. j  —  Virginia.  (Campbell.  Am.  Jour., 
xviii.,  19,  121.)  --  Rocky  Mountains.  (King:  Geol.  40th  Par- 
allel, Atlas  Map  I.,  and  "  General  Sections.")  —  Wisconsin. 
(Hall :  Geol.  Wis.,  Plate  III.;  Chamberlin  :  Geol.  Wis.,  1876,  Atlas, 
PI.  XI.  Pennsylvania.  (Rogers :  Geol.  Penn.,  ii.,  894,  and 

Atlas,  Sheet  i.) 

6.  Economical   products.       (Whitney   in    Geol.  lo.,   1858,   i.,  422-71 ; 

Brodhead  :  Geol.  Mo.,  1874,  503-637 ;  Whitney :  Wis.  Geol.  Rep., 
1862,  221-420;  Strong:  Wis.  Rep.,  1877,089-752.) 

II   Lower  Silurian  Times.    -  -    The  treeless  shore.    -  -    The  shelv- 
ing Beach.     (Ag.  Geol.  Sk.,  36.)  Its  fucoidal  imprints.    - 
Its  sands  and  ripple  marks.              A  shallow  sea  with  a  sinking 
bottom.    --    Another  sea  covering  the  "  Great  Basin." 

III.  Lower  Silurian  Life.     (Reports  cited  above.     Also  Billings: 
Palseozoic  Fossils  of  Canada,  1865. 

1.  Sudden  exuberance  of  life.     (Ag.:   Geol.  Sk.,  37.)  A  busy 

population.     (Daws.:  Story,  40,  66,  views.) 

2.  The  type  of  Trilobites,  with  illustrations.  (D.  174-5  ;  L.  309  ;  Daws.: 

Story,  44-5;  Barrande:  Systeme  Silurien,  vol.  i.)  —  General 
structure,  rank  and  affinities.  -  -  Historical  development  and 
decline.  -  -  Their  suddenness  and  zoological  rank  to  be  noted. 
(See  especially  Barrande  :  Systeme  Silurien  du  centre  dela  Boh£me 


—  16  — 

Tome  i.,  and  Trilobites,  1871,  abstracted  in  W.:  The  Doctrine  of 
Evolution,  Appendix.) 

3.  The  Type  of  Chambered  Shells.    (D.   124 ;  L.  305-8 ;  Barrande : 

op.  tit.,  ii.,  and  Distribution  des  Cephalopodes  Siluriens.    -  -    Gen- 
eral structure,  rank  and  affinities.     (W.:  110-21.)     -  -    Permuta- 
tions of  septum,  siphon,  and  mode  of  enrollment.     (W.  119.)     - 
Glimpse  of  the  later  history  of  the  type.    -  -    Later  than  trilo- 
bites,  but  inferior. 

4.  The  type  of  crinoids.      (D.    128 ;  L.   297-300 ;     Billings    in    Can. 

Geol.  Surv.,  Decades  iii.  and  iv.    -  -    General  structure,  rank  and 
affinities. 

5.  Corals  and  Graptolites.     (D.  199.)     No  polyp  corals  till  the  Vlth 

epoch  of  life  or  Trenton.    --    Graptolites.      (Hall,  Canad.  Geol. 
Surv.,  Decade  ii.) 

6.  Lingulidse  and  their  relations.      (L.  301 ;  Daws.:  Story,  41-3.)      — 

Persistence  of  type.    -  -    Discina. 
IV.  Events  which  terminated  the  Lower  Silurian  Age. 

Uplift  of  Green  Mts.     (D.  212-16.)    --    The   Cincinnati  Axis. 
Newberry :  Geol.  of  0.,  i.,  93-111 ;  Cox :  Geol.  Ind.,  1879,  5  seq. 


VHI.  THE  REIGN  OF  MOLLUSCS,  OR  THE  UPPER  SILURIAN 
AGE. 


Official  Geological  Reports,  especially  those  of  New  York,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Michigan 
and  Canada.    Also  the  other  references  under  Lect.  VII. 

I.  How  each  act  of  the  Drama  was  closed. 

1.  Premonitory  tremblings.       -    Progressive  change  of  sea-bottom. 

-    Obliteration  of  life.    -  -    Uplift  of  a  new  belt  of  land. 

2.  Such  movements  generally  slow.    -  -    But  sometimes  violent. 

3.  Changes  of  systemic  value  world-wide.    --    Perhaps  not  synchro- 

nous in  remote  regions.    (D.  192.)    -  -    Minor  changes  progres- 
sively more  local. 

II.  The  lands  of  later  Silurian  time.  The  desolate  and  wast- 

ing continent.  The  winding  shore.     (D.  250-1.)    —     The 

eroding  waves.  The  teeming  sea.  Scenes.     (Fig.: 

World,  93;  Daws.:  Story,  40,  66.) 

III.  Organization  in  later  Silurian  time. 

1.  The  ^perpetuated  Trilobites,   Orthoceratites  and  Crinoids.        — 

Specimens.     (D.  227.) 

2.  The  type  of  Polyps,  or  true  Coral-animals.       (D.  617-26;    Corals 

and  Coral  Islands;  Zoophytes,  Wilkes  Expl.  Exped.) 


—  17  — 

(1.)  The  zoological  position  of  Polyps.    (D.  130.) 

(2.)  Actinoid  Polyps.    (D.  130.) 

(3.)  Coral  secretions.  —  Coral  structures.  (D.  617 :  L.  138-53.)  —  Coral  reefs  and 
islands.  (D.  618-26;  L.  139;  De  la  Beche:  Observer,  165-205;  Darwin:  Carol 
reefs;  Beete  Jukes:  Surveying  Voyage  of  the  Fly;  Rcclus:  Earth,  556-61,) 

(4.)  Upper  Silurian  Corals.    —    Favositidse.    —    Halysites.    (D.  225 ;  L.  293.) 

3.  Other  coral  secreting  animals.     (D.  130.) 

4.  Orthi-dx.      (D.    170-2.)  Eurypterus.    (D.   239 ;  L.   313;    Fig.: 

World,  99.) 

IV.  Upper  Silurian  Bocks. 

1.  Illustrative  sections.     (Lect.  VII.,  I.,  5.) 

2.  The  great  limestone  mass  of  this  age.     —      Western  New  York, 

(D.  218.)  --  Drummond's  Island.  (W.:  Geol.  Mich.,  55:  Mich- 
igan, 52.)  Big  Bay  de  Noquet.  (W.:  Mich.,  53.)  •  Chi- 
cago. (Worthen  :  Geol.  of  HI.,  129-36 ;  Winchell  and  Marcy. 
Mem.  Bos.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  4to.,  No.  2.)  Southern  Ohio  and 
Ind.  '  (D.  221 ;  Newb.:  Geol.  0.,  iii.,  7.) 

3.  Noteworthy  Erosions.     -  -     Niagara  River.     (D.  219 ;  W.  244.    See 

Lects.  XX.  and  XX  VII.)  The  Northern -Lakes.    (Newb.: 

Geol.  O.,  ii.,  72-80 ;  iii.,  45-51 ;  W.  220 ;  Foster  and  Whitney  :  Geol. 
L.  Sup.  Land.  Dist.} 

V.  Chapters  of  Upper  Silurian  History. 

1.  Niagara,  Salina,  Lower  Hederberg  and  Oriskany.  But  the 

Oriskany  perhaps  Devonian.     (D.  241.) 

2.  Characteristic  outcrops  of  each  group. 

5.  Economical  products  of  each.    (D.  220,  222,  234  ;  Foster  and  Whit- 

ney :  Lake  Sup.,  ii.,  201.) 


IX.  THE  REIGN  OF  POLYPS,  OR  THE  DEVONIAN  AGE. 

Official  Geological  Reports,  especially  those  of  New  York,  Ohio.  Michigan,  Illinois, 
and  Canada.  Also  the  other  references  under  Lect.  VII.  On  extinct  organic  types,  see 
Nicholson:  Manual  of  Palxontology;  Pictet:  Pateontologie,  4  vol.,  Atlas,  110  plates. 

I.  A  culmination  of  Polyp-life. 

1.  Devonian  coral-reefs.     (D.  225;  W.:   Grand.   Trav.  Reg.,  41;  Ly.: 

Travels,  2d  vis.,  ii.,  203.) 
'2.  Favositidseand  Syringoporid?e  in  particular.     (D.  204,  259;  L.  293, 

319.) 
3.  CyathophyllidsB  in  particular.     (D.  255,  259  ;  L.  292.    --     Ancient 

and  modern  types.     (Lyell :  EL,  403.) 

II.  Trilobites  and  Orthoceratites  declining.     (Daws.:  Story,  93.) 

1.  Representative  species. 

2.  Gomphoceras,  Lituites,  Cyrtoceras  and  Clymenia. 


—  18  — 

3.  Advent  of  Insects  and  Land  Plants.     (D.  258;  L.  315-8;    Daws.: 
Story,  101-8.) 

III.  The  advent  of  Vertebrate  life. 

1.  Organization  hitherto  invertebrate. 

2.  The  law  of  progress. 

3.  Realization  of  a  new  fundamental  conception.    -  -    Destined  to  a 

wonderful  expansion. 

4.  Fishes  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone.     (D.  285  ;  L.  323-4 ;  Fig.:    World, 

110-1;  Hugh  Miller:  Old  Red  Sandstone,  etc.;  Lancaster  and 
Powrie;  Palseont.  Soc.,  1870-1;  Lyell:  EL,  415-9.) 

5.  Devonian  Fishes  of  Ohio  and  Canada.     (D.  261-5;    L.  325-7;  W. 

120,  127;  Newb.:  Geol.  0.,  Pal.  i.,  sec.  ii.,  247-324 ;  Bulletin.  Nat. 
Inst.,  1857,  1-8  ;  Am.  Jour.  Scl.,  xxxiv.,  July,  1862.) 

(1.)  Their  systematic  position.    (Newb.:  Pal.  0.,  i.,  247-52.    —    Nearest  living  allies 

(L.  327-9;  Newb.:  Pal.  0..  254-5;  W.  120.) 

(2.)  Their  bulk,  organization  and  defences.    (Newb.:  Geol.O.  Pal.  i.,  sec.  ii.,  247-324.) 
(3.)  Many  of  their  characters  relatively  embryonic.    (L.  331.  Cartilaginous 

skeleton.    —    Heterocercal  tail.    (L.330.)     —    Subcephalic  position  of  mouth. 

—    In  Placoids  still  other  characters. 

IV.  Growing  Continents  and  meagre  Forest  coverings. 

1.  Glimpse  of   the   coming  age.    --    Flowerless   land-plants.     (D 

268-71 ;  Daws.:  Story,  102-7  ;  Acadian  Geol.,  2d.  ed.;  Geol.  Canada, 
1871  ;  Q.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  xv.,483,  xviii.,296,  xix.,458,  xxvii.,  270. 
See  also  general  references  Lect.  XIII.)  Scenes.  (Fig.; 

World,\W;  Daws.:  Story,  88,  103;  W.  130.) 

2.  Relics  found  in  New  York,  Ohio  and  Canada.     (See  references 

under  IV.,  1.) 

V.  Chapters  of  Devonian  History. 

1.  Corniferous,  Hamilton,  Chemung.     --    Oriskany  perhaps  belongs 

at  bottom.    (See  Lect,  VIII.) 

2.  Lithological  and  Palaeontological.distinctions. 

3.  The  great  limestone  axis,  Cornifero-Harnilton.    --    The  cycle  of 

deposition  well  illustrated. 

VI.  Geographical  distribution  of  Outcrops. 

1.  Syracuse,  Caledonia,  Eighteen  Mile  Creek,  and  all  southern  N.  Y. 

-  London,  Goderich,  Ont.  --  Mackinac.  ( W.Mick.,  58;  Foster 
and  Whit.:  L.  Sup.,  164-5.)  —  Little  Traverse  Bay.  (W.  Grand 
Traverse  Region,  40-8.)  Thunder  Bay,  Monroe,  Mich. 

Columbus,  Delaware,  Sandusky,  O.  (Geol.  O.,  i.,  142-9.)  —  Falls 
of  the  Ohio.  (D.  255.) 

2.  Some  illustrative  sections.     (Rogers:  Geol.  Penn.,  i..  and  ii.,  894, 

895,  Atlas,  Sheet  1.) 


—  19  — 
X.  THE  REIGN  OF  PISHES,  OR  THE  CARBONIFEROUS  AGE. 

Official  reports,  especially  those  of  Ohio,  Illinois,  Iowa.  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Indiana, 
Michigan.  Pennsylvania,  and  those  directed  by  Hayden,  King,  Wheeler  and  Powell. 
(See  Partial  List  of  Authorities  under  "  Abbreviations.") 

See  also  the  other  General  references  under  Lect.  Vll. 

I.  The  Waverly  Period.     ^  W.:  The  Marshall  Group,  1870,  from  Proc. 

Am.  Phil.  Soc.;  also  Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xxxiii.,  352;  ib.,  xxxv.,  61 ; 
Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phil.,  Sept.,  1862,  405  ;  ib.,  Jan.,  1863,  2;  ib., 
July,  1865;  Geol.   Tenn.,  1869,  364-5,  440;  Meek  and  Worthen : 
Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  II.,  xxxii.,  167-177,  July,  1861.) 
1 .  The  Rocks. 

(1.)  Lithological  variations.    < W.  Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  xi.,  78-7.) 
(2.)  Geographical  distribution  and  outcrops.    (W.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  xi.,  77-82.) 
•2.  The  Fossil  Remains. ;.  (W.  Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  xii.,  385-407;  White 
and  Whitfield.  Proc.  Boston  Soc.   Nat.   Hut.,  Feb.,  1862,  289-306.) 
d.)  Great  development  of  Lamellibranchs. 

(a.)  Their  zoological  relations.    (D.  125-6:  Woodward:  Man.  Mol.) 
(b.)  Their  increase  with  the  diminution  of  Brachiopods.    (L.  303.; 
(2.)  Advent  of  Carboniferous  types.  (W.  Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  xii,  401-7.)    —    Oar- 

'  boniferous  Crinoids.    (Hall,  xvii.  Reg.  Sep.} 
3.  Questions  of  Parallelism. 

(1.)  Sketch  of  history  of  opinion,    (W.  Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  xi,  57-73.) 

(2.)  Nomenclature  and  equivalences  in  America.    (W.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,xi,  73-82; 

xii,  387-401,  415.) 

(3.)  Comparison  with  upper  member  of  Old  Red  Sandstone.  (W.  Am.  Jour.  Sci., 
xxv.,  61 ;  Proc.  Am.Pkil.  Soc.,  xii,  412-14.) 

II.  The  Carboniferous  Limestone  Period. 

1.  A  season  of  deep  and  quiet  waters  in  the  West.    (D.  304-5,)    - 

Limestone  mass  Eastern  equivalents.     (D.  293,  295,  305.) 

Gypsum  formation  somrtimes  constituting  the  base.  (D.  295, 
296  ;  W.:  Geol.  of  Mich,  1861.)  --  The  "Mountain  Limestone"  of 
Europe.  (D.  306.)  Perhaps  embraces  the  Waverly  of 

America. 

2.  Crinoidal    life   at  its    Culmination      (D.   297-8;    L.    382-3.      See 

Geol.  Reps.  111.,  Iowa,  Mo.,  Ohio.) 

(1.)  Zoological  description  of  Crinoids.  (D.  176, 128-9  :  Billings:  Geol.  Can.,  Decade 
iv.,  7-17;  Am.,  J.  S.,  II.,  xlvii-1.;  C.  A.  White,  Bost..  Joiir.  Xat.  Hist.,  Jan.,  1863, 
481-506.) 

(2.)  Their  Geological  history.    —    Living  representatives. 

(3.1  Abundant  remains  in  Mississippi  Valley.  —  Burlington,  lo.  (D.  303 ;  Lyon 
and  Cassiday :  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  xxix,  68-79.)  —  Kentucky.  (Last  ref. ;  Lyon, 
Trans.  Acad.  Sci.  St.  Louis,  i,  628-34 :  Proc.  Acad.  JV.  S.  Phil.,  Dec.,  1861,  409-14.) 

(4.)  Other  forms  of  life.  —  Large  Spirifers.  (D.  300;  Lee.  384;  Geol.  Heps.  III., 
lo.,  etc.  —  Nautili.  (Geol.  Reps.)  —  Goniatites.  (L.  386.)  —  Their  struc- 
ture and  affinities.  —  Fishes.  (D.  301 ;  L.  389 :  Geol.  III.,  ii,  11-134  :  iv.  387-74 
vi.  245-488  ;  Newberry,  Geol.  O.,  Pal.  i.  325-55.) 


—  20  — 

3.  Oscillations  of  Level.    (D.  305,  309.)  Successive  epochs  of 

deposition.     (D.  294;  Hall,   Geol.  Iowa,  i.  92-119;  Proc.  Amer. 
Assoc.1856,  pt.  ii.,  51.) 
m.  The  Coal  Period. 

1.  Its  characteristic  the  development  of  land-vegetation. 

2.  The  "  False  Coal  Measures."     (D.  295.)    --    The  "  Conglomerate  " 

or  Millstone  Grit.    (D.  311.)    --    The  Coal  Measures.     (D.  311.) 
-    The  last  replaced  by  limestones  in  the  far  West.    (D.  296.) 
—    Meaning  of  this  fact. 

3.  The  Coal  Fields  of  North  America.     (D.  291-3,  319-21 ;  L.  338-9 ; 

Macfarlaue :  The  Coal  Regions  of  America.  See  further,  Lec- 
ture XI.) 

4.  Progressive  upward  movement  of  sea-bottom  implied  by  the 

wide-spread  Conglomerate.     (D.  311,  320,  354,  394,  672.) 
IV.  The  Permian  Period.    -  -    An  appendix  to  the  Coal  Measures. 
(Meek  &  Hayden,   Trans.  Albany  Institute,  2  March,  1858.)    - 
Rocks,  fossils  and   localities.    (D.  367 ;  L.  400-4 ;   Fig :    World, 
151-63.) 

XI.    COAL  AND  COAL  MAKING. 

MACFAKLANE:    The  Coal  Regions  of  America,  1873 ;  TAYLOR:  Statistics  of  Coal,  1855: 
JOHNSON  :  Report  to  Congress  on  Coals,  1844 ;  LESLEY  :    Coal  and  its  Topography  ;  Article 
"  Coal"  in  New  American  Cyclopaedia. 
I.  Great  phytogenic  periods  of  the  world's  history. 

1.  Prsezoic    —    Only  deductively  known. 

2.  Laurentian     •  -    Graphite  in  Siberia,  Greenland,  Canada,  United 

States,  Bavaria,  Norway,  Sweden.  (Daws. :  Dawn  of  Life,  27-33 ; 
Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  London,  Feb.,  1870.) 

3.  Coal  Measures  of  Carboniferous  time. 

4.  Permian:     --     Russia.     (D.  370.)     •        Australia.    (D.  370,  and 

Geol.  Rep.,  Wilkes,  Expl.  Exped.,  1849 ;  L.  415.) 

r>.  Triassic:— Richmond,  Va.,  etc.  (D.  404,  406;  L.  445  ;  Lyell :  Travels, 
2d  visit,  ii.) 

6.  Jurassic :— India  and  China.     (L.  415 ;  Pumpelly,  Smith.  Contrib. 

xv.,  Art.  iv.)  Lota,  SW.  coast  of  S.  Amer.     (L.  Ag. :  N.  Y. 

Tribune,  and  Am.  Jour.,  iv.  143.) 

7.  Cretaceous: — Rocky  Mts.     (D.    457.    Compare,  however,   D.  491, 

493.  ;  L.  455-6.)  --  Age  of  the  Western  Lignitic  or  Lararnie 
formation  in  dispute.  (See  Lect.  XIV.)  Winnipeg.  — 

Vancouver.  (D.  458  ;  Whiteaves  :  Mesozoic  Fossils,  i,  pt.  ii.,  Geol. 
Sur.  of  Canada,  179-90.)  --  Queen  Charlotte's  islands.  (Whit- 
eaves,  lb..  pt.  i.,  86-92.)  --  Monte  Diablo,  Gal.  ( Whitney, Geol. 
Col.  i.,  27-31.) 


—  21  — 

8.  Miocene :— Coos  Bay,' Or.     (Newb. :  Bost.  Jour.  Nat.  Hist,  vii.,  506  ; 

Lesqx. :  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  II.  xxvii.,  359  ;  Heer,  ib.  xxviii.,  85.)     - 

u'Appelle  and  North  Saskatchewan  rivers,  B.  A.     (Hector, 
Quar.  Jour.  Qeol.  Soc.  Lond.,  xvii.,  pt.  i.,  409,  etc.)    -        Europe. 

9.  Modern :— Peat-beds  of  Ireland,  Denmark,  Bavaria,  United  States 

and  elsewhere.     (D.  616;  L.  133-6.) 

10.  Deposits  of  bituminous  and  coaly  shales.     (D.  66. ) 

II.  Varieties  of  Coal  and  Carbonaceous  deposits.     (D.  314-7; 

System  of  Mineralogy,  755-5  ;  Rogers  :  Geol.  Penn.  ii.) 
1.  Caused  by  pressure,  heat,  impurities,   redeposition  and  chemical 

changes. 
'2.  A  graduated  series  of  products  The  older  generally  most 

altered.    L.  342,  346.) 
(1.)  Peat,  of  the  recent  epoch  Mostly  in  northern  temperate   countries. 

(R6clus:  Earth,  416-8.) 
(2.)  Brawn  Coal  or  Lignite    —    Chiefly  Cenozoic,' in  Germany,  United  States,  etc. 

(See  above  I.,  7,  8,  9.) 

'  (3.)  Bituminous    Coal :— Mesozoic  and  a  portion  of  the  Carboniferous.    (D.  315 ; 
•    Marvine,  Hayden's  Eep..  1873, 110 ;  Hayden :    Ann.  Rep.,  1870, 179-88.)    —    Min- 
eral Charcoal.    (D.  316;  Daws.:  Story,  118;  D.  Syst.  Min.,  755. 
(4.)  Cannd  Coal  .-—Chiefly  Carboniferous.  (D.  315.)     —     Also  Green  River  Eocene; 
(Hayden  :  Ann.  Rep.,  1870, 144.)    Produced  by  littoral  attrition  and  redeposi- 
tion.   —    Torbanite,  Scotland.    (D.  315..  316.) 

(5.)  Anthracite  .-—Chiefly  Carboniferous  (D.  315.)    -    But  in  limited  quantities  in 
older  and  newer  formations     —     Causes  of  anthracitization  (L.  346.)     - 
Highly  altered  Carboniferous  in  Rhode  Island.    (D   319.) 
(6.)  Plumbago  .—In  Silurian  and  Archaean  formations.    (See  above,  I.,  2.) 
(7.)  Prof.  Rogers'  Classification  of  Coals.    (Geol.  Penn.,  ii.,  988-95 ;  Eraser,  Haydm's 

Rep.  Wyoming,  1870, 180.) 
(8.)  Nature  of  Coke.    (D.  61.) 

III.  The  Vegetable  Origin  of  Coal      (D.  351  ;  Bischof ;  Chemical 

Geology;  Websky  in  Jour.  f.  Praktische  Chemie,  xcii.;  Hunt  in 
Am.  Jour,  Sc.,  II.,  xxxv.,  and  Canad.  Nat.,  vi.,  241 ;  S.  W.  John- 
son :  Peat  and  its  Uses.) 

1.  Chemical  Composition.  -  Tables  (D.  316,  361-2,365:  L.  343-5; 
D.  System.  Min.,  756-8:  Rogers:  Geol.  Penn.,  ii.,  969-76;  Mar- 
vine,  Hayd.  Rep.,  1873,  110 ;  Hayden :  Ann.  Rep.,  1870,  179-88 ; 
Peter,  Geol.  Ky.,  1856,  352-5,  361,  363,  vol.  iv.,  243,  247-8,  266-9, 
especially  284-5  ;  Whitney,  Geol.  CaL,  30.)  -  -  Economical  rank 
of  Coals.  (Rogers,  Geol.  Penn.,  ii.,  1000 ;  Johnson,  Report  to 
Congress.) 

•2.  Graduated  series  from  wood  to  plumbago.    (L.  343-5.) 

3.  Traces  of  vegetable  structure. 

(1.)  In  the  forms  of  fronds  and  fruits.    (D.  317  ;  Lesqx. :  Geol.  III.,  iv.,  479-89.) 

(2.)  In  vegetable  tissue  in  coals  themselves.    (D,  318;  Lesqx.;  (tool.  /«.,  iv.,  478,) 


—  22  — 

4.  Theories  of  conditions  of  coal-accuniulatioii.     (D.  360-4  ;  L.  363.) 
(1.)  A  marine  deposit.    (Whittlesey,  Annal*  of  Science.} 
(2.)  Formed  ef  Drift-wood. 
(3.xi  Formed  over  sub-aerial  surfaces. 

IV.  Stratigraphical  associations  of  coal.    (D.  311,  320;  L.  335; 

Geol.  Reports  111.,  Io.,  0.,  Mo.,  Ky..  Ind.,  Pa.,  etc.) 

1.  Shales.     (D.  313.)    --    Character.    --    Fossil  plants. 

2.  Clays.     (D.  312.)     -  -     Stigmaria  roots.     (D.  313.)     Fire  clays  and 

their  properties. 

3.  Sandstone  Often  gritty  or  conglomeritic.  Vegetable 

remains. 

4.  Limestones  Increasing  westward.     (D.    313.)    --    Marine 

animals. 

V.  Disturbances  of  Coal  Fields. 

L  Little  disturbed  in  the  Mississippi  valley  Mich.,  Ind.,  111. 

Highly   bituminous  Little   disturbed   in  the   Rocky 

Mts.    (Hay den,  Rep.  1870,  Wyoming,  180. 

2.  Greatly  disturbed   in  the  Appalchian    region.     (D.  396;  L.  336. ) 
Pennsylvania.      (D.    310;    L.    337;    Rogers:    Geol.    Penn. ; 
Lesley :  Coal  and  its  Topography  and    Geol.  of  Penn.,  New  Sur- 
vey.)    --    Debituminized.     (Rogers:  Geol.Penn.,  ii.,  808-11.)     - 
Foreign  regions.     (D.  344-51.) 

VI.  Goal  Fields  of  the  United  States.    --     I.Appalachian.    (Rog- 

ers: Geol.  Penn.,'\\..  954-0.)  *  2.  Illinois.  (Rogers:  ut  sup., 
959.1  --  3.  Rhode  Island.  -  4.  Michigan.  5.  Eastern 

and  Middle  Rocky  Mountains.  (Frazer.  Hayden's  Rep.  Wyoming. 
1870,  179-86.  See  Lect.  XIV.)  G.  Monte  Diablo.  (See 

above,!.,  7.)  --  7.  Oregon.  (See  above,  I.,  8.)  --  8.  Alaska. 
(Ball :  Alaska  and  its  Resources.)  —  On  the  "iCoal  Fields  of  the 
United  States  and  Rritis-h  Provinces,"  see  Rogers:  Geol. 
Penn.,  ii.,  942-54. 


XII.  COAL  MEASURE  TIMES. 

1.  Picture  of  a  Coal-measure  landscape.    (W.  149-54.) 

1.  The  thick  dank  forest.  (D.  352,  353,;  L.  369-70;  Tyndall,  Proc. 
Hoy.  $oc.,  xi.,  100  [Am,  Jour.  Soi.,  II.,  xxxvi.,  99]  ;  T.  S.  Hunt : 
Chemical  and  Geolog.  Essays,  42.)  --  Tree  Ferns  and  dripping 
fronds.  --  A  thick  jungle.  (D.  354.)  —  Prostrate  trunks  and 
decaying  stumps.  (D.  356.)  Land-snails,  myriapods  and 

insects.     (D.  333-6,   339 ;  L.    385;    Daws.:    Story,    112-5,    135-42; 
Geol.  ML,  iii.,  556-72.) 


—  23  — 

2.  A  stagnant  bayou.  —  Archegosaurus.  (D.  351;  L.  393;  Daws.: 
Story,  145;  Fig.:  World,  139;  Lyell :  Elem.,  397.)  --  Amphi- 
bamus  and  its  vocal  utterances.  (D.  340.)  --  Eosaurus  inhab- 
iting the  waters.  (D.  340,  343;  L.  393;  W.  170;  Daws.:  Story, 
145-6.)  Dragon-flies  depositing  their  eggs.  (D.  335.) 

Fishes.     (D.  336,  343.) 
*  3.  A  stormy  beach  and  a  sheltered   lagoon.          ^Origin  of  cannel 

coal. 

4.  Views.  (Dana,  322  ;  W.,  140,  142,  144,  146,  150 ;  Daws. :  Story,  126, 
145 ;  Fig. :  World,  133,  138,  142  ;  Lyell :  Elem.,  393.) 

II.  A  change  of  Scene.      —  *  Lowering  skies.      —  >'•  Heaving  sea- 

bottoms.    —  r Invading  waves.    —  /Another  submergence. 

III.  Results  seen  in  modern  coal-beds.    W.  139-48.) 

1.  A  stony  herbarium.  Fairy  tracery.  Delicacy  and  per- 

fection of  features. 

2.  What  have  we  represented  in  this  coal  ? 

/   (1.)  The  very  tissue  and  cell,  and  pith  and  root,  and  leaf  and  frond.    (D.  317.) 
(2.)  The  very  carbon  which  poisoned  the  atmosphere  aeons  ago. 

^L.  (3.)  The  very  sun-light  which  fell  upon  the  forest,  treasured  up  to  be  disengaged 
again  in  our  winter  fires.  —  Solar  energy  transformed  and  locked  up,  to  be 
set  loose  in  countless  steam-engines  of  the  human  period.  (Huxley,  Contem- 
porary Review.} 

v  IV.  Three  Ends  to  be  accomplished  in  Coal-making. 
/   1.  To  purify   the  air  for  organic  purposes.      (D.  353;  L.  373.)     - 
-    The  existence  of  method  and  purpose  assumed. 

-  (1.)  The  poison  neither  annihilated  nor  fixed  in  mineral  combinations. 
X  (2.)  The  agency  of  vegetation.    (W.  160.) 

(3.)  The  demand  for  respirable  air  coincident  with  the  first  epoch  when  the  con- 
ditions of  the  land  permitted  the  adequate  development  of  the  purifier. 
A2.  To  preserve  the  carbon  for  the  coming  man. 
X   (1.)  Tendency  of  vegetation  to  decomposition. 

(2.)  Organic  substances  preserved  only  in  wet  accumulations. 

-  (3.)  This  need  concurrent  with  the  only  epoch  when  the  oscillations  were  suffi- 

ciently frequent. 

^3.  To  accomplish  all  things  under  the  established  method  of  world- 
building. 

(1.)  Oscillations  of  the  level  of  the  land.  (D.  395.)  —  '  Foreshadowed  in  the  False 
Coal  measure  and  Conglomerate  epochs.  (D.  354.) 

-  (2.)  Special  history  of  this  period.    (D.  354-60.)     --     Oscillations.    (D.  357  ;  W., 

161.)     —     Alternate  sea-bottom  and  verdant  marsh.    (D.  357-9;  L.  366.)     — 
Number  of  submergences.     (D.    358.)     -  -      Warmth  and  dampness  o'f  the 
atmosphere.    (See  above,  I.,l.) 
v    (3.)  The  other  ends  demanded  at  the  only  time  when  ihe  tension  of  the  terrestrial 

crust  could  generate  the  requisite  oscillations. 

(4.)  Grand  closing  events.  (D.  395-401.)  —  Uplift  of  Appalachians.  —  Great 
enlargement  of  limits  on  the  eastern  wing  of  the  continent  (L.  367  ;  W. 
161-2.)  —  Advent  of  the  Middle  Ages  of  the  world's  history.  (L,  400.) 


—  24  — 

XIII.  VEGETATION  OF  THE  COAL  MEASURES  AND  OLDER 
FORMATIONS. 

D,  especially  242,  255,  257-8,  268-71,  277,  279-80, 296-7, 321-31,  348-9 ; 
L.  346-63 ;  W.  156-9. 

DAWSON:  Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man,  121-32;  Fossil  Plants  of  the 
Lower  Carboniferous  and  Millstone  Grit  Formations  of  Canada,  Mon- 
treal, 1873. 

FIGUIER:  The  World  Before  the  Deluge. 

LESQUEREUX :  Geology  of  Pennsylvania,  (1854),  1868,  vol.  ii.,  pt.  ii., 
835-84,  Plates  i-xx.  Synopsis  iu  New  Amer.  Cyclopaedia; 

Atlas  to  the  Coal  Flora  of  Penii.,  etc.,  1879;  Amer.  Jour.  Sci., 
Nov.,  1860;  Geology  of  ill.,\i.  427-70,  iv.  379-477;  Pottsville  Scien- 
tific Assoc.,  1858,  1-23;  Fucoides  in  the  Coal  Formations,  Trans. 
Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  1866. 

NEWBERRY  :  Geology  of  Ohio,  i., 357-85;  Annals  of  Science,  Cleveland, 
1853. 

SCHIMPER  :  Traite  de  Paleontologie  vegetale,  1869. 

H.  C.  WOOD,  Jr.:  Flora  of  the.  Coal  Period  in  the  United  States.  Trans. 
Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  1866. 

On  the  Genesis  and  Migrations  of  Plants,  see  DAWSON,  in  Princeton 
Review,  March,  1879,  also  the  works  there  cited. 

On  plants  older  than  the  Carboniferous,  see  especially, 

HALL  :  Observations  upon  some  spiral-growing Fucoidal  remains  in  the 
Paleozoic  Rocks  of  N.  Y.,  xvi.  Reg.  Rep.,  1863,  71-83;  Observations 
upon  the  genera  Uphantueniu,  Dictyophyton ,  etc.,  op.  cit.  84-9]  ;  The 
Flora  of  the  Devonian  peiiod,  op.  cit.  v)2-117. 

DAWSOX  :  The  Flora  of  the  Devonian  Period  in  Northeastern  America, 
Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  xviii.,  296;  xvi.  Reg.  Rep.  N.  Y.,  97-107; 
Fossil  Plants  of  the  Devonian  and  Upper  Silurian  Formations  of 
Canada,  Geology  of  Canada,  1871. 

SYSTEMATIC  ARRANGEMENT  OF  PALEOZOIC  VEGETATION. 

[Extinct  types  in  italics.  Silurian,  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  types  denoted 
respectively  by  S,  D  and  C.] 

PH^ENOGAMS. 
ANGIOSPERMS. 

Bxogens.     (Ordinary  trees,  shrubs  and  herbs. ) 

Bndogens.     (Palms,  Sedges,  Grasses,  etc.) 
GYMNOSPERMS. 

Oycads.— Cordaites  D.  C,  Cardiocarpus  C,  -f  Pterophyllum  C. 


—  25  — 

Conifers  D.  C.  —  Araucariae,  Pines,  Cypresses,  Yews;  Prototaxites  S.~D  , 
Pinites  C,  or  Dadoxylon  (including  Sternbergia),  Trigonocarpus  D. 
C,  Cardiocarpus  D.  C,  Rhabdocarpus  C,  Araucaroxylon  D,  Whittle- 
seya  C,  Annularia  C. 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

ACROGENS. 

Equisetaceae.    (Horse-tails.) 
Equisetids. 

Calamitids  D.  C  -.—Calamites  D.  C,  Equisetites  C,  Annularia  C. 
Asterophyllids  D.  C  :  —  Asterophyllites  C,  Sphenophyllum  C. 
Filices  D.  C  i—Eopteris  S,  Caulopteris  D,  Neuropteris  D.  C,  Oydop- 
teris  (Nceggerathia  or  Pal&opteris)  D.  C,  Sphenopteris  D.  C,  Callipte- 
ris  D.  C,  Alethopteris  C,  Hymenophyllites  C,  Odontopteris  C,  Pecop- 
teris  C,  Neriopteris  C,  Dictyopteris  C,  Alethopteris  C,  Staphylopteris 
C. 

Cyathacese  —  Tree  Ferns,  —  Caulopteris  D.  C,  Psaronius  D,  Mega- 
phytum  C. 

Lycopodiacese—  Club-mosses. 

Lycopodids  S.  D.—Psilophyton  S.  D,  Arthroistigma  D. 

Cydostigmids  :  —  Cydostigma  D,  Knorria  D.  C. 

Sigillarids  D.  C:  —  Sigillaria  D.  C,+  Stigmaria  D.  C,  Syringodendron 
C,  Poacites,  Cyperites,  Sternbergia  f  C. 

Lepidodendrids  S.  D.  C:  —  SagenariaS,  LepidodendronD.  C,  -j-  iepi- 
dostrobus  C,  Halonia  C,  Selaginites  G,  Lycopodites  C,  Sahutzia  C, 
Ulodendron  C,  Lepidophloios  C,  Lepidophyllum  C,  Sigillaria  -\- 
Sigillarioides  (roots)  +  Stigmaria  (floating  stems)  +  f  Stigmar- 
ioides  (rhizomes)  C.  (See  under  Sigillarids.) 

ANOGENS.    (Mosses,  Liverworts.) 
THALLOGENS. 
Lichens. 
Fungi. 
Algae. 
Conferva;. 

Fucoides  S.  D.  C.  —  Palseophycus  S,  Buthotrephis  S,  Musophycus  S, 
Arthropliycus  S,  Spirophyton  D.  C,  Caulerpites  C,  Chondrites  C,JPro- 


Desmids  (including  Xanthidia.)  (D.  257,  471  ;  M.  C.  White,  ^4 

Jour.  *S"ci,  xxxiii.,  385-6. 
Diatoms. 


—  26  — 
XIV.    THE  REIGN  OF  REPTILES,  OR  MESOZOIC  TIME. 

On  American  Mesozoic  geology  see,  besides  the  references  below,  the  Geological 
Reports  of  California,  the  Fortieth  Parallel  and  of  the  Territories,  under  Dr.  Hay  den. 
Also  MORTON  :  The  Cretaceous  System  of  the  United  States. 

On  the  Vegetation  of  these  Ages,  see  LESQUEREDX  :  Cretaceous  Flora  of  the  Western 
Territories,  Hayden  Survey,  Vol.  vi.  4to.  1874,  and  The  Tertiary  Flora  of  the  Western  Ter- 
ritories, Hayden  Surv.  Vol.  viii.  4to.  1878.  [These  "  Tertiary  "  plants  are  from  the  Lig- 
nitic  or  Laramie  Group  regarded  by  many  as  Cretaceous.]  NEWBEERY  :  Hep.  on  the  Cre- 
tac.  and  Tertiary  Plants,  in  Hayden's  Explor.  Yellowstone  and  Missouri  Rivers,  1859-60, 
145-74.  Also  FONTAINE;  Noies  on  the  Mesozoic  Strata  of  Virginia,  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  Til. 
xvii.  25, 151,  229. 

On  the  Reptiles  and  Mammals,  see  references  under  Lectures  XV.  and  XVII. 

I.  The  Mesozoic  Continent. 

1.  Its  Geography  (D.  405,  422-3,  450-1,  455-8,  478-80,  481 ;  L.  449,  45J  ; 

W.  195-8).    --    Outlines   (L.  451-2).    --    Forests   (D.  451).    - 
Emerging  western   limb.      (See  Lecture  XXIII).     -  -    Topog- 
raphy. 

2.  Its  Hydrography.      (D.  420,  423 ;  W.   195-8).     -  -    Drainage   fea- 

tures.    —     Gulf   of    Mexico  (D.  479).         -     Communication 
between  the  Caribbean  and  the  Arctic  Ocean.     (D.  479).    - 
Gulf  of  St.   Lawrence.    -  -    Lake   Superior  and  its   outlet.    - 
Niagara  Falls  in  the  olden  time.    -  -    Hudson  river  and  its  out- 
let.    (D.  422). 

3.  Views.     (W.  177,  179,  181 ;  Daws. :  Story,  194,  219 ;   Fig. :    World, 

172,  174,  206,  213,  222,  225,  229,  240,  258,  268). 

4.  European  Mesozoic  Geography.     (D.  451,480). 

II.  Triassic,  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  Ages.     (D.  403;  L.  404). 

1.  Triassic  subdivisions.    -  -    Trias  in  the  U.  S. 

2.  Jurassic  subdivisions.     --    Occurrence  in  the  trans-Mississippi. 

3.  Cretaceous  subdivisions,  European  and  American.     (Lesqx. :  The 

Cretaceous  Flora,  Hayden  Surv.  Vol.  vi.  4to.  14  ;  Ann.  Rep.  1872, 
371-427  ;  ib.  1874,  316-65,  8  plates,  monographic  ;  Hayden,  Ann. 
Rep.  1870, 87 ;  Cope,  in  W  heeler  Rep.  Vol.  iv.  pt.  ii.  1-13.)  — 
Question  of  the  age  of  the  "Liguitic"  or  Laramie  Group.  (D. 
457,491,493;  L.  455-6;  Newberry,  Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xxix.,  208-18; 
III.,  vii.,  90;  Boston  Jour.  Nat.  Hist.,  vii.,  506:  Lesquereux,  Am. 
Jour.  /Sci.,  II.,  xx vii.,  359;  ib.  III.,  vii.,  546  ;  ib.  Hayden  Ann.  Rep., 
1872,  417-42 ;  ib.  1873,  365-425 ;  ib.  The  Tertiary  Flora  of  the  Wes- 
,  tern  Territories,  Hayd.  Surv.,  vii.,  4to.,  21-31,  309-355  ;  ib.  1874,  275- 
315  ;  Meek,  Hayd.  Ann.  Rep.,  1862,  46-9  ;  Hayden  :  Ann.  Rep.,  1872 
14 ;  1874,  ch.,  i.-ii ;  Cope.  Bull.  Hayd.  Sur.,  L,  10  ;  ib.  Report  Vert. 
Pal,  Col.,  Hayd.,  Ann  Rep.  1873, 431-44 ;  Marvine.  Haydn.  Ann.  Rep. 
1873, 106-28,  171-6;  Stevenson,  Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  June,  1855; 


—  27  — 

Peale,  Hayd.  Ann.  Rep..  1874,  140-55,  Comparison  of  opinions  ; 
Endlich.  Hayd.   Ann,  Rep.,  1875,  195-207  ;  King,  Geol,  40</i  Par., 
i.,  539;  iii.,  ch.,  vii.,  on  the   western  Cordilleras;  Comstock,  in 
Jones  Rep.  N.  W.  Wyom.,  132-3.) 
III.  Marine  Populations  and  Plants  of  Mesozoic  Time. 

1.  Where  their  remains  have  been  exhumed.    (D.  405-7,431.)      — 

Atlantic  and  Gulf-border.      (D.  455  ;  L.  439.)  Marl-beds 

of  New   Jersey.      (D.    455  ;    Daws.  :   Story,  329.)  Prairie 

Bluff  and  Choctaw  Bluff,  Ala.  (W.,  Proc.  Am.  Assoc.,  1858  and 
1856.)  --  Western  Territories.  (D.  456-7;  L.  440.)  --  Pacific 
border.  (D.  457  L.  440.) 

2.  Palaeozoic  Types  extinct:  — 

)C(1.)  Plants  :—  Lepido  dendrids^Sigillarids  Cyclostigmids,  Calamites. 

* 


(2.)  Radiates  :—  Graptolites.     (D.  384.)     —  *fTtystids 

Favositsoid  and  other  corals. 
y  (3.)  Brachiopods  :—  Orthids,  Productids. 

(4.)  Cephalopoda  :  —  Goniatites  (in  Triassic),  Ctymenia,  Gomphocerag,  Endoceras. 
)C(5.)  Articulates:-£rrilobites.  Eurypterids. 

(6.)  Vertebrates  :—  Heterocercal  Ganoids.    (D.  384,441.;. 

2.  Palaeozoic  Types  greatly  shrunken  :— 
(1.)  Plants:— 

(2.)  Radiates  :—  Cyathophylloids,  Crinoids. 

"^(3.)    Brachiopods.    (Daws.:  Story  221.)—  Spirifer,  Leplsena,  Brachiopods  generally. 
(5.)  Vertebrates  :—  Placoderm  Fishes. 

4.  New  Types  introduced  or  greatly  developed. 

(1.)  Plants  :—  Cycads.     (D.  408;  L.  416-7.)    —    Angiosperms.    (D.459;  L.  457.)     - 

Palms. 

(2.)  Protozoans  :—  Rhizopods.    (D.  460;  L.  459.) 
(3.)  Radiates  :—  Astraeoid  corals,    Echinoderms.     (L.  460.)  Asterioids.     (L. 

419-20.) 

(4.)  Molluscs  :—  Lamellibraiichs.    (L.  461.)    —    Ammonites.    (D.  439;  462-3,  467  ;  L. 
421,  464  ;  Daws.  :  Story  221.)    —    Belemnites.  (D.  440,  432-4.)    —    Structure  and 
affinities  of  Ammonites.  (D.  409-10  ;  L.  422;  L.  Ag.»  Geol.  Sk.,  177-9,  Lect.,  VII., 
III..  3.)    —    Geological  history  of  Cephalopods.    (L.  425.) 
•f-(5.)  Articulates  :—  Maerouran  Crustaceans.    (D.  441.) 

^  (6.)  Vertebrates  :—  Teleost  Fishes.    (D.  442,  462,  475  ;  L.  466.)    —    Zoological  charac- 
ters.   (Huxley;  Vert.,  130-44.) 

IV.  The  Air-breathing  denizens  of  the  land  and  waters. 

1.  Classification  of  Amphibians  and  Reptiles. 

^2.  Conspicuous  Mesozoic  types:  —  Ichthyopterygians.     —     Python- 

omorphs  iMosasaui>.j     -        Crocodilians.     --    Sauropterygians. 

-    Dinosaurs.  Ornithosaurs.  Turtles.     (D.  466;  W. 

190.)  Geological  succession  among  reptiles.     (Cope.,  Proc. 

Am.  Acad.  Boston,  xix.,  194;  Am.  J.  S.,  ii.,  217.) 

3.  Scenes  on  the  banks  of  the  future  Delaware. 


—  28  — 

-  4.  Scenes  in  the  future  valley  >f  the  Connecticut.  Bipedal 

Reptiles.  (D.  412  ;  L.  431,  443-4 ;  W.  168,  183-7  ;  Ag. :  Sketches, 
150-4.) 

5.  Advent  of  Birds.    (D.  414,  466,  468  ;  L.  470,  472 ;  Daws.  Story,  208  ; 

Marsh,  Am.  Jour.,  Sci.,  March  1860  ;  1872,  56,  360,  March,  1873  : 
Allen,  Bull.  Hayd.  Surv.  iv.,  443,  Apr.,  1878.)  Birds  with 

vertebrated  tails.  (D.  414,  430,  446-7,  468  ;  L.  436-7,  420  ;  W.  184  ; 
Fig. :  World,  229  ;  Mivart :  Genesis  of  Species.)  Birds  with 

.  biconcave  vertebrae  and  sharp  teeth.  (D.  466 ;  L.  470  ;  Marsh, 
Am.  Jour.,  May  1872,  344 ;  Jan.,  1873,  74 ;  Feb.,  1873 ;  x.,  Nov., 
1875,  plates  ;  xi.,  June,  1876.  509 ;  xiv.,  July  1877,  85,  plate ;  xvii. 
266.) 

6.  Advent  of  Mammals.     (D.  415,  427,  429,  446,  449-50 ;    L.  438 ;  W. 

188 ;  Daws. :  Story,  208.     Lecture,  XVII.,  II.,  i.,  and  III.,  i.)    - 
Their  Marsupial  affinities.     (D.   415,430;  L.  438  ;  Daws. :  Story, 
209.)    --    Unknown  through  the  Cretaceous.     (D.  466;  L.  372.) 
V.  Disturbances.    (D.  417.    Lecture  XX.,  V.) 

1.  Trias  and  eruptions  of  Trap.     (D.  417-20,  421.) 

2.  Jurassic  closed  by  uplift  of  mountains.      (D.  452-3 ;  L.  450. 

Sierra  Nevada  and  Basin  ranges  to  the  east.  (D.  452,  486  ;  Whit- 
ney :  Oeol.  Cal.  ;  King:  Rep.  Wth.  Par.,  i.,  734-54,  759.  -  -  Hum- 
boldt  range.  (D.  453,  486.) 

3.  Cretaceous  closed  by  uplifts : — Wahsatch   Range.     (King  :  Rep. 

40th.  Par.,  745,  747,  753,  not  D.  453,  486.)  -  Uinta  Range. 
(King:  op.  tit.,  540,  not  D.453,  486.  Lecture  XXV.,  I.,  7.)  Cali- 
fornia west  of  Sierra  Nevada.  (D.  523.)  Part  of  Rocky 
Mts,  east  of  Wahsatch.  (Lect,  XXV.,  L,  7.)  Increased 
cold  and  extermination  of  species.  .  (D.  487 ;  L.  475  ;  Daws. : 
Story,  232.) 

XV.  SOME  EXTINCT  TYPES  OF  REPTILES. 

For  a  completer  list  of  extinct  American  Reptiles,  see  Supplement,  "Aids  to  Advanced 
Study." 

IMPORTANT  REFERENCES: 

E.  D.  COPE:— I.  Synopsis  of  Extinct  Batrachia,  Reptilia  and  Aves  of 
North  America.    Trans.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  1869  and  1870. 

II.  Vertebrata  of  the  Cretaceous  Formations  of  the    West.    Hayden 
Survey,  ii.,  4to.,  1874.      For  literature  to  date,  see  pages  51-3.     For  syn- 
opsis of  known  Cretaceous  Vertebrata  of  N.  Amer.,   see  pp.,  245-oO± 

III.  Report  on  the  Vertebrate  Palaeontology  of  Colorado.  Hayden  Ann. 
Rep.,  1873,  427-533. 


—  29  — 

IV.  Descriptions  of  some  Vertebrate  Remains  from   the    Fort  Union 
Beds  of  Montana.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.,  Sci.  Phil.,  31  Oct.,  1876. 

V.  On  some  Extinct  Reptiles  and  Batrachians  from  the  Judith  River 
and  Fox  Hills  beds  of  Montana.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Dec.,  1876. 

VI.  Batrachia  of  the    Coal  Measures  of  Ohio.     Proc.  Amer.  Phil. 
Soc.,  Feb.,  1877. 

VII.  Geology  of  the  Judith  River  beds,  Montana,  «.nd  the  Niobrara 
Cretaceous.    Hayden  Bulletin,  iii.,  No.  3. 

VIII.  Paleeontological  Bulletin,  No.  28.    Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  21 
Dec.,  1877. 

IX.  Extinct  Batrachia  and  Reptilia  from  the  Permian  Formation  of 
Texas.    Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  5  Apr.,  1878. 

X.  Report  upon  the  Extinct  Vertebrata  obtained  in  New  Mexico  by  par- 
ties of  the  Expedition  of  1874.     Wheeler  Survey,  vol.,  iv.,  pt.,  ii. 

JOSPEH  LEIDY  : — I.  Cretaceous  Reptiles  of  the  United  States.  Smith- 
sonian Contributions  to  Knowledge.  1863. 

O.  C.  MABSH,  in  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  Hid. 
Series.  The  references  denote  volume  and  page. 

Leidy  and  Cope  are  cited  by  the  Roman  numerals  prefixed  to 
their  papers.  The  references  to  "Hux."  signify:  A  Manual  of  the 
Anatomy  of  Vertebratcd  Animals,  Am.  ed.,  1872. 

I.  Classification  of  Amphibians  and  Reptiles.    (Hux.,  149,  169. 

Compare  Cope,  Bull.  U.  S.  NationaLMuseum,  No.  1,  and  C.  I.,  4-6, 
26-9.) 

1.  Tabular  analysis  of  Orders  of  the  two  Classes. 

2.  Amphibia   differentiated  from  Fishes.  (Hux.,   149.)      —      From 

Reptiles. 

3.  Reptiles  differentiated  from  Amphibia.  (Hux.,  167-9.)    --    From 

Birds.  (Hux.,  Proc,-  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  Apr.,  1867.) 

II.  Amphibians. 

1.  Urodela  (Stegocephali,  C.  I.,  6.) 

(1.)  Salamandrids:— Ichihycanthus.   (C.   VI.,  573.)     —     Leptophractus.  (C.  VI.,  576.) 
(2.)  Xenorhachia  (Cope,  Geol.  HI.,  ii.,  137)  -.—Amphibamus.  (Cope,  P.  A.  N.  S.  1865, 

134;  Geol.  III.,  ii.,  135-41.)  —    Tuditamis.  C.  VI.,  577.) 

(3.)  Microsauria.  (Dawson,  ): — Pelion=Raniceps.  (Wyman,  Am.  Jour.  Sci., 

1858, 158 ;  W.  170 ;  C.,  I.,  9.)     —     Hylmumus.  (Daws. :  Story,  146, 148 ;  Can.  Nat., 
viii,  167.)     —     Sauropus.  (D.  302 ;  Lea,  Trans.  A.  P.  Soc.,  x.  1852.)     —     Den- 
drerpeton.  (Daws. :  Story,  146 ;  Owen,  J.  Geol.  Soc.,  1853,  81 ;  C.  1. 12.) 
(4.)  Ganocephala :— Colosteus.  (C.,  I.,  22.)    —    Rhachilormis.  (C.,  ix.,  526.) 
•2.  Labyrinthodonta.  (Hux.,  154-5 ;  Fig.  :   World,  170.)  Char- 

acters and  geological  history.  (L.  409;  W.  172-4,  176-7.)  — 
Footprints.  (D.  412;  Hitchcock:  Jchnology  of  New  England ;  L. 
409.)  Dictyocephalus.  (Leidy,  P.  A.  N.  S.,  1856,  256.)  — 

Baphetes.  (Daws. :  Story,  145-6  ;  Owen,  Q.  J.  Geol.  Soc.,  1853.) 


—  30  — 

III.  Plesiosaurs.  Structure  and  affinities.  (Hnx.,  180-6.) 

Plesiosaurus.  (D.  443;  L.  430;  W.  178-9 ;  Ag. :  Sketchet,  160; 
Daws.:  Story,  213;  Fig.;  201-6.)  Pliosaurus.  (L.  430.) 

Polycotylu*.  (D.  467;  C.,  P.*  A.  N.  S.,  18  June,  1SW»  :  I.,  :'>4-S  ; 
II.,  70-5.) 

IV.  Lacertilians.    --    Characters.  (Hux.,  186-93.) 

1.  Rhynchocephals.  (Hux.,  194;  Marsh,  xv.,  409.)  Nothodon. 

(Mh.,  xv.,  410.)  Oricotus.  (C.,   P.  A.  N.  S.,  1875.  405.) 

Clepsydrops.  (C.,  P.  A.  N.  S.,  1875,  407.) 

2.  Homceosaurs.  (Hux.,  195-6) .— Triassic  Telerpeton.  (D.  427,  428  ;  W. 

166;  Hux.,  Q.,  J.  Geol.  Soc.,  xxii.) 

3.  Protorosaurs.  (Hux.,  195-6.)      —      Permian  Protorosaurus. 

Crematosaurus.  (C.,  III.,  515.) 

4.  Monitors  or  Platynota.  Hux.,  193,  lW):—Saniva.  (Leidy.  P.  A.  X. 

S.,  1870,   124.)  Thinosaurus.  (Mh.,  iv.,  229,  Oct.  1872.) 

Glyptosaurus.  (Mh.,  i..  456,  June,  1871  ;  iv.,  302,  305.) 

V.  Pythonomorphs  or  Mosasaurs.  (C.,  I.,  182 ;  Owen,  Q.  J.   G.  S., 

1879,  682 ;  C.,  Hayden  Surv.  Bull  iv.,  No.  1 ;  Mh.  iii.,  June,  1872. 
See  synopsis,  C.,  II.,  264-72.)  Mosasaurus.  (D.  464,  465,  468, 

474  ;  L.  469 ;  Daws. :  Story,  216'7  ;  especially  Fig. ;  World,  264-8  ; 
Leidy,  I.,  30-74.  See  further,  Supplement)  Discosaurun- 

Elasmosaurus,  Cope.  (D.  464,  467 ;  L.  467 ;  Leidy,  I.,  22-5  ;  W. 
190;  Daws.:  Story,  217-8.  See  Suppl.  [/).  carinatus  of  Kansas 
had  72  cervical  vertebrae  ;  Plesiosaurus  had  24-41 .]  —  Edesto- 
saurus.  (D.  468;  Mh.,  i.,  447.)  --  Oimoliasaurus.  (W.  190  ;  C.,  I., 
40-4  ;  Leidy,  L,  25-9.) 

VI.  Ichthyosaurs.    (Hux.,  208-14)  -.—Ichthyosaurus.  (D.  442-3;  L.  429  ; 

W.  138-9;  Ag.:  Sk.  158-9;  Daws.:  Story,  213;  Fig.:  World,  194- 
200 ;  C.  I.  29.)  -  -  Resemblance  to  Cetaceans.  (Hux.,  208 ;  D. 
443 ;  W.  178-9.)  A  composite  type.  (Ag. :  Sk.  159.)  — 

Eosaurus.    (Mh.  II.,  xxxiv.,  July,  1862 ;  W.  170.) 

VII.  Crocodilians.    --    Characters.     (Hux.,   214-21.)     —     Tabular 

analysis  of  Families. 

1.  Alligatoridse  -.—Alligator.    (C.  Hayd.  Ann.  Rep.,  1872, 614  ;  C.  V.  15.) 

2.  Crocodilidae :— Crocodilus.    (C.  Hayd.  Ann.  Rep,   1872,  612;  C.  VI. 

31-4  ;  C.  X,  62;  Mh.  i.,  553.)  —  Dlplocynodus.  (C.  Hayd.  Ann.Rep., 
1872,  613;  VI.  31,  X,  60.) 

3.  Gavialidse  -.—Thoracosaurus.    (D.  467  ;  Leidy,  I,  5-12.) 

4.  Teleosauridse  :—  Teleosaurus.    (L.  431;  Fig.:    World,  225.)    —    Hy- 

posaurus.    (D.  467 ;  Leidy,  I.,  18 ;  C.  I.,  23  ;  C.  II.,  67-80.) 

5.  Belodontidse :— Belodon,   perhaps  a    Lacertilian.     (D.  428  ;  C.  I.. 

56-61.) 


—  31  — 

VIII  Dicynodonts  and  Theriodonts.  -  -  Characters  and  history 
of  Dicynodonts.  (L.  410.)  —  Combined  characters  of  croco- 
diles, tortoises  and  lizards.  (Owen,  .)  —  Characters  and 
history  of  Theriodonts.  (L.  411 ;  Owen,  .) 

IX.  Ornithoscelids.     (Hux.,  223-32;  L.  431.)  Characters  inter- 

mediate between  Eeptiles  and  Birds.    (Hux.,  224-6 ;  L.  431.)    - 
Structure  of  pelvis.    —    Position  of  Pubis  and  Postpubis.    (Mh. 
xvi.,   417,   plate:    xvii.,  90.)      —      The   hind-limbs.    --    Many 
bipedal.    (Mh.  xvii.,  91. 

1.  Dinosaurs.    (D.  413,  464  ;  L.  431,  452 ;  C.  I.,  86-90  ;  Mh.  xvi.,  412.) 
(1.)  Permian:— Lysrophu*.    (C.,  P.  A.   N.  S.,  1877,  187.)    —    Bolosaurus.    (C.  IX., 

506-8.) 

(2.)  Triassic-.-Thecodontosaurus.  (C.  VIII.,  231.)  —  Pateosaurus.  (C.  VIII.,  232.) 
-  Clepsysaurus.  (D.  413 ;  Lea,  Jour.  A.  N.  S.  Phil.,  ii.,  4to.  pt.  3,  1852.)  - 
Bothy 'gnathug.  (D.  414;  L.447;  W.  178,  184;  Leidy,  Jour.  A.  N.  S.,  1854,  327;  C. 
I.,  119.)  —  Megadactylus.  (C.,  I.,  122  A.) 

(3.)  Jurassic:— Megalosaurus.  (D.  444 ;  L.  433 ;  Fig. ;  255.)  —  Ceteosaurus.  (L.434; 
Daws.:  Story,  204. ,  —  Pel&rosaurus.  (W.  188;  Mantell,  Phil.  Trans.,  1850,  pt.  2, 
p.  379.)  —  Iguanodan.  (L.431;  W.  189;  Fig.:  World,  258;  D.445:  Mantell : 
Foss.  of  Brit.  Mas.,  224-313;  Isle  of  Wight,  227-34.)  —  Amphiccelias.  (C.  Pal. 
Bull.  27;  C.  VIII.,  233,  242-6.  [C.  says  cretaceous,  kangaroo-like,  and  A  fragtt- 
listimus  over  100  ft.  in  length.  (C.  in  Sow  Francisco  Acad.  Sci.,  1879.)] 

Suborder  SAUROPDA.  (Atlantosaurldse,  Mh.  xvi.,  412,  Nov..  1878)— Atlanto- 
sauru&=Titanosaurus,  Mh.  (Mh.  xiv.,  87,514;  xv.,  241 ;  xvi.,  412;  xvii.,  88;  L. 
468).  Mh.  estimates  it  80  ft,  in  length,  and  says  it  was  the  largest  land  animal 
so  far  known. 

Suborder  SAUBANODONTA.  (Mh.  xvii.,  85) :  —  Sauranodon.  (Mh.  xvii.,  86.) 
—  Cama,rasa,urus=:1  Chrondrosteosaurus,  Owen,  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat  Hist.,ii., 
101.  Sep.,  1878,  (C.,  P.  A.  N.  S.,  20  July,  1877,  7 ;  C.,  VIII.,  233-42;  Mh,  xvii.  89.) 
C.  says  it  is  Cretaceous,  and  C.  supremtis  was  72  ft  in  length. 

Family  Allosauridse,  having  affinities  with  Megalosauridae.  (Mh.  xviii..  89) : 
AUvsaurm.  (Mh.  xiv.,  515.)  —  Creosaurus.  (Mh.  xv.,  243 ;  xvii.,  90.) 

Family  Nanosauridse,  having  affinities  with  Compsognathus.  (Mh.  xv.,  224 ; 
xvii.,  90.)  —  Nanosaurus.  (Mh.  .) 

(4.)  Cretaceous -.—Hadrosaurus.  (.D  464,  467;  L.  467  468;  W.  192-3;  Daws.:  Story 
202  ;  Leidy,  Cretac.  Reptiles,  U.  S.,  1865,  76-97 ;  C.  I.,  91-8, 122I.-122  J.  See  refer- 
ences, C,  II.,  247.)  —  Ladapi;=Dryptosaurus,  Koch,  (D.  464 ;  W.  191;  Daws.: 
Story,  203;  C.,  P.  A.  N.  S.  June,  1866;  1. 100-18;  IV.,  1-2;  V.,  1-5;  Hayd.  Bull,  iii., 
4,  805.)  -  -  Ornithotarsus.  (D.  464  :  L.  468 ;  C..  P.  A.  N.  S.,  18  June,  1869  ;  I. 
120-1.)  - 

2.  Oompsognaths.  (Hux.,  225,  228 ;  L.  434  Compsognathus.  (L. 

434.) 

X.  Pterosaurs.  (D.  464 ;  Daws. :  Story,  265-7 ;  Hux.,  228-32.)    --    Gen- 

eral characters.    -  -    Doubtful  Ornithopterus. 

1.  With  fully  toothed  jaws'    -  -    Pterodaclylus.    (D.  446,  468 ;  W.  178, 

180-1 ;  Mh.  xv.  233,  Sep.,  1878  ;  xvi.  411,  Nov.,  1878.)  . 

2.  With  jaws  produced  into  toothless  beaks.     —     Rhamphorhynchus. 

(D.  446,  misnamed— after  Goldfuss.        -    Pterodactylus ;  (L.  435; 
W.  183-4 ;  Ag. ;  Sk.  162.) 


—  32  — 

3.  With  jaws  entirely  toothless.    --    Pteranodon.    (L.  468  ;  Mh.  iii., 
Apr.,  1872 ;  xi.  507,  June,  1876  ;  Cope  I.,  169-75 ;  II.  65.) 

XI.  Chelonians.  Testudo.     (Leidy,    I,   101-111;    Extinct    Vert. 

Forma  West.  Terr.,  Hayd.  Surv.,  339-40 ;  C.  X,  283.)        -     Compse- 
mys.    (Leidy,  Trans.  A.  P.  S.,  1860,  152;  C.  II.,  91;  IV.   10.    - 
Adocus.    (C.  L,  232-3;  11.91.) 

XII.  Ophidians  :—Palseophis.    (C.  Oeol.  N.  J.,   1868,  737  ;  P.  A.  N.  S., 
1868,  147,  234;   Trans.  A.  P.  Soc.,  1869,  pi.  xiv.)     -  -    Dinophis. 
(Mh.  II.,  xlviii.,  397.)    -      Soavus.    (Mh.  i.,  322-4.) 

XVI.  THE  REIGN  OF  MAMMALS,  OR  THE  TERTIARY  AGE. 

See  especially,  the  official  geological  reports  of  New  Jersey,  South 
Carolina,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Tennessee,  California,  British  Colum- 
bia, and  those  conducted  by  Hayden,  King  and  Wheeler.  Also,  CON- 
RAD :  Tertiary  Fossils  of  the  United  States  ;  TUOMEY  and  HOLMES  :  Fossils 
of  South  Carolina,  4to.,  1855. 

I.  The  Continent  during  the  Tertiary  Age. 

1.  Its  approximate  completeness.     (D.  521-2.)  Outlines.    (L. 

479-80 ;  W.  200.) 

2.  Intracontinental  seas.    (D.  491 ;  L.  479,  512 ;  W.  200-1.     See  Lect. 

XXIII.)  --  Relics  of  the  Mesozoic  intercontinental  channel. 
(L.  511-2  ;  W.  199.) 

3.  Arboreal  vegetation  and  its  modern  aspects.    (D.  497-8  ;  L.  481-3 ; 

Lesquereux:  Tertiary  Flora,  Hayden  Rep.,  4to.  vii.;  but  see 
Lect.  XIV.) 

4.  Stratification.    (King,    Geol.  4Qth  Par.  ch.  v. ;  Lesqx.    Tert.  Flor. 

Hayd.  Surv.  vii.,  10-20,  24;  Hayden  Ann.  Rep.  1870,  93;  1874,  23; 
Marsh,  xvi.,  Plate,  iv. ;  Proc.  Am.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.  1877,  210.) 

5.  Views.    (Daws. :    Story,  253 ;   Fig. :     World,  288,   309,  329.    Also, 

especially,  the  Reports  of  Hayden,  King,  Wheeler  and  Powell.) 

II.  Marine  Animals.    --    Approximation  to  modern  types.    (D. 499- 

501 ;  L.  486-7.)  --  Subdivisions  based  on  percentages  of  living 
species.  (D.  489  ;  L.  476-7  ;  Daws.  :  Story,  239.)  Zeuglodon. 

(D.  502  ;  L.  500-1  ;  W.  203  ;  Leidy  :  Extinct  Mam.  Dakota,  427  : 
Extinct  Vert.  Fanna  Ter.,  1873,  337.)  -  -  Squalodon.  (Leidy^ 
Extinct  Mam.  Dak.,  416-24.)  -  Comparison  of  Zeuglodon  with 
the  Mosasaurs.  --  Other  marine  mammals. 

III.  Decadence  of  the  Reptilian  Dynasty. 

1.  Total  extinctions.    (L.  492) :    -  -    Dinosaurs,  Pterosaurs,  Ichthyo- 

saurs,  Plesiosaurs,  Dicynodonts. 

2.  Types  shrunken  :— Lacertilians,  Crocodilian*. 


—  33  — 

3.  Types   conserved  and  developed  : — Chelonians.     (Colossochelys,  D. 
516,  520  ;  L.  493.)    --    Ophidians.     (D.  509,  576.) 

IV.  Rise  of  Mammalian  Rule. 

1.  Sudden  abundance  at  the  beginning  of  this  age.    (L.  495.) 

2.  Their  predominantly  placental  character.     (L.  495.) 

3.  Already  considerably  differentiated.    (L.  495  ;  Daws. :  Story,  244.) 

—  Types.    (Mh.,  Proc.   Am.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.,  1877,  211-58):— 
Zeuglodont,  Sthenorhine  (both    tapiroid  and  horned),   Equine, 
Carnivorous,  Insectivorous,  Rodent,  Cheiropterous,  Quadruman- 
ous.    —    Many  of  these  Marsupial. 

4.  But  these  types  not  completely  differentiated.     -  -    All  the  types 
comprehensive.    (L.   508,  509-10.)      —     Became  progressively 
more  differentiated.     —    Hence  supposed  to   have  proceeded 
from  types  still  more  comprehensive.    (L.  511.)    —    ThePanto- 
dont  type.    (L.  506-7  ;  Cope,  P.  A.  N.  S.,  Feb.,  1873 ;  On  the  Ex- 
tinct Vertebrata  of  the  Eocene  of  Wyoming,  Hayd.  Ann.  Rep.  1872, 
585-9 ;  Palseont.  Bullet.,  No.  28,  Proc.  A.  P.  Soc.  21  Dec.,  1877, 24-30, 
order  AMBLYPODA  proposed.) 

V.  The  Cemeteries  of  the  Animals.  (W.  204-5.) 

1.  Why  their  remains  are  not  generally  distributed. 
<  2.  The  areas  called  "Bad  Lands."  (D.  492,494,495;  L.  478-9;  W.205- 
10.  See  also  Lect.  XXVII.,  II..  4,  (4)  f.)  -  A  picture  of  deso- 
lation. —  An  ancient  sea  freshening  to  a  lake.  —  The  lake 
gradually  filled  with  sediment.  (D.  491.)  —  Life  upon  its  bor- 
ders. —  Inhumation  of  skeletons.  —  Erosions  of  later 
times. 

3.  Sequence  of  Tertiaries  and  names  of  Lakes.    (King,  40th  Par.  i., 
458 ;  Mh.  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  ix.,  49;  Grinnell  and  Dana,  ib.,  xi.,  126.) 

—  Three    geographically  distinct  Tertiary  Basins ;  probably 
more. 

(1.)  Eocene  (in  the  middle  province). 

(a.)  Vermillion  Creek  Group,  King=Wahsatch  Gr.,  Hayden.  —  Deposited  in 
UTE  LAKE.  —  Between  Wahsatch  and  Rocky  Mts.,  from  Wind  R.  Range 
south  to  New  Mexico.  —  The  Uiuta  Range  an  island.  —  Coryphodon. 
Eohippus,  Oxyana,  Meniscotherium,  etc.  (King,  i.,  376-7.) 

(6.)  Green  River  Group,  Hayden=Elko  Gr..  King.  —  Deposited  in  GOSICTE 
LAKE.  —  Nearly  the  same  as  last,  with  doubled  east  and  west  dimen- 
sions. —  Wahsatch  and  adjoining  highland  a  peninsula ;  Uinta  still  an 
island.  —  Fishes,  Insects. 

(c.)  Bridger  Group.  —  Deposited  in  WASHAKIE  LAKE.  —  Wholly  within 
the  boundaries  of  Ute  Lake.  Dinoceras,  Tinoceras,  Uintatherium, 

Orohippus,  Palaosyops,  etc. 

(d.)  Uinta  Group.    —    Deposited  in  UINTA  LAKE,  south  of  Uinta  Mts.,  in  valley 
of  Green  and  White  rivers.      —    Hyopsodus,  Epihippus,  Agriochcerus,  etc. 
(2.J  Miocene.    —    Two  contemporaneous  basins. 
O 


—  34- 


Truckee  Group,  King—John  Day  Gr.,  Marsh.  —  Deposited  in  PAH  UTE 
LAKE,  (Province  of  Nevada  and  Oregon.)  —  East  of  Cascade  and 
Sierra  Nevada  Ranges,  from  Columbia  river  south  into  California.  — 
Rhinoceros  Pacfficus,  Eporeodon,  Diceratlierium,  Miohippus,  etc. 

White  River  Group,  Hayden.    —    Deposited  in  Sioi  x  LAKE,  (Province  of 
the  Great  Plains).    —    From  Northern  Kansas  far  into  British  Columbia, 
and  west  nearly  to  Colorado  Range.       —      Menodus,  Brontoiherium, 
Oreodon,  Mesohippus,  Poebrolherium.  Dinictis,  etc. 
(3.)  Pliocene.    —    Three  contemporaneous  basins. 

Humboldt  Group,  King.  —  Deposited  in  SHOSHONE  LAKE,  (Province  of  the 
Great  Basin).  —  Covering  Pah-Ute  Lake  and  stretching  east  over  the 
Great  Basin  to  Wahsatch  Mts.  —  Protohippus,  Merychippus,  Dicrocerus. 

North  Park  Group,  Hague  and  Hayden.  —  Deposited  in  NORTH  PARK 
LAKE,  (Middle  Province).  —  \  North  Park  and  upper  valley  of  North 
Platte  River.  —  No  fossils. 

Niobrara  Group,  Marsh.  —  Deposited  in  CHEYENNE  LAKE,  (Province  of  the 
Great  Plains).  —  Superimposed  on,  and  overlapping  Sioux  Lake  on  all 
sides ;  stretching  southward  to  the  Gulf  and  northward  into  Rritish 
Columbia.  —  Protohippus,  Pliohippus,  Procamelus,  Dicrocerus, 
etc. 

4.  Atlantic  and  Gulf-border  Tertiaries.    (D.  491,  494,  495;  L.  477.) 

5.  Foreign  Tertiary  Basins.    (D.  512 ;  L.  480.)    —    The  Paris  Basin. 

(D.  512,  513 ;  L.  496-8.)     •        What  Cuvier  dug  from  it.    (D.  513, 
517-8 ;  W.  202  ;  Daws. :  Story,  240 ;  Agassiz  :  Sketches,  185-90.)    - 
Reminiscence  of  Montmartre  and  the   Buttes  Chaumont.    - 
The  Vienna  Basin.    (D.  515.)    --    The  London  Basin.     (D.  511, 
513  ;  Daws. :  Story,  245, 247.)    —    Himalayan  deposits.    --    The 
monarch  of  proboscideans.      —      Sivatherium.     (D.  520  ;  L.  498- 
9.)    --     Colossochelys.     (D.  516,  520  ;  L.  493.) 

VI.  A  Glimmering  from  the  Future. 

VII.  Disturbances  of  the  Tertiary  Age.    (L.  512;  Daws.:  Story, 

236-7.    See  Lect.  XXV.)  Some   cordilleras  in  Wyoming, 

Utah  and  California.  --  Coast  Range,  Cal.  (D.  523;  L.  256.) 
—  Enormous  outflow  of  lava  along  the  Pacific  slope.  (L.  512; 
Sen  also  Lects.  II.  and  XXVI.)  —  Pyrenees,  Appenines,  Car- 
pathians, Alps. 

VIII.  Parallelism  of  European   and    American   Formations. 
(Cope,  Hayden  Bulletin,  v.  No.  1,  33-54 ;  Marsh,  xvi.,  pi.  iv.,  Nov. 
1878.) 

XVII.   SOME  EXTINCT  TYPES  OF  MAMMALS. 

[For  a  completer  list  of  Extinct  American  Mammals,  see  "  Supplement."] 

GENERAL  REFERENCES. 

LEIDY: — I.  The  Ancient  Fauna  of  Nebraska.     Smithsonian  Contri- 
butions to  Knowledge,  1853. 


—  35  — 

II.  Extinct  Mammalia  of  Dakota  and  Nebraska,  in  Jour.  Acad.  Nat. 
Sci.  Phil.,  vol.  vii.,  1869. 

III.  Extinct   Vertebrate   Fauna  of  the   Western    Territories.    Hayden 
Survey,  1873,  vol.  L,  4to. 

COPE  : — I.  Synopsis  of  the  Extinct  Mammalia  of  the  Cave  Formations  of 
the  United  States,  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  July,  1869. 

II.  Preliminary  Report  on  the   Vertebrate  discovered  in  the  Port  Ken- 
nedy Bone  Cave,  Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  Apr.  7,  1871. 

III.  On  the  Extinct  Vertebrata  of  the  Eocene  of  Wyoming,  Haydeu 
Ann.  Rep.,  1872. 

IV.  Report  on  the  Vertebrate  Palaeontology  of  Colorado,  Haydeu  Ann. 
Rep.,  1873,  427-533. 

V.  Report  on  the  Stratigraphy  and  Pliocene  Vertebrate  Palaeontology  of 
Northern  Colorado,  Bulletin,  Hayden  Survey,  No.  1. 

VI.  Descriptions  of  New  Vertebrata  from  the  Upper  Tertiary  Forma- 
tions of  the  West,  (Palseontological   Bulletin,   No.  28),  Proc.  Am.   Phil. 
Soc.,  21  Dec.,  1877. 

VII.  Descriptions  of  new  Extinct  Vertebrata  from  the  Upper  Tertiary 
and  Dakota  Formations,  Hayden  Survey,  Bulletin,  vol.  iv.,  No.  2,  May 
3,  1878. 

VIII.  Report  upon  the  Extinct  Vertebrata  obtained  in  New  Mexico  by 
parties  of  the  Expedition  of  1874,  Wheeler  Survey,  vol.  iv.,  pt.  ii.,  4to. 

IX.  On  some  of  the  Characters  of  the   Miocene   Fauna  of   Oregon, 
Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  15  Nov.,  1878. 

X.  Observations  on  the  Faunse  of  the  Miocene    Tertiaries  of  Oregon, 
Hayden  Surv.  Bui.,  v.  No.  1,  55-67. 

XI.  On  the  Extinct  Species  of  Rhinoceridse  of  North  America  and 
their  Allies,  Bui.  Hayd.  Survey,  v.  No.  2,  227-37. 

[The  general  works  cited  above  supersede  many  of  Leidy's  and  Cope's  numerous 
preliminary  contributions,  and  hence  such  contributions  are  not  quoted.] 

MARSH  : — Numerous  papers  in  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Artt, 
series  III.  These  are  cited  by  volume  and  page. 

Leidy  and  Cope  are  cited  by  the  Roman  numerals  prefixed  to  their 
publications,  as  above. 

I.  Classification  of  Mammals.     (Hux.,  Anat.    Verteb.   Anim.,  273; 

Gill,  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  Nov.  1872,  8vo.,  98pp. 

1.  Tabular  analysis  of  the  Orders. 

2.  The  types  becoming  progressively  differentiated  through  time. 

II.  Triassic  Mammals. 

1.  American: — Dromatherium  sylvestre.     (D.  415,  417  ;  Emmons  :  Geol. 

N.  C.)    --    An  insectivorous  Marsupial.     (D.  416-7.) 

2.  Foreign  -.—Microlestes  antiquus.  (D.  429.)  Related  to  above. 


—  36  — 

HI.  Jurassic  Mammals. 

1.  American  -.—Dryolestes  priscus.    (Mh..  xv.,  459;  xvi.,  411.)    —    D. 

vorax.  (Mh.  xviii.,  215,  Sep.,  1879.)  --  Stylacodon  gracilis.  (Mh. 
xviii.,  60.)  --  Tinodon  bellus.  (Mh.  xviii.,  215,  fig.,  Sep.,  1879.) 
—  All  insectivorous  Marsupials. 

2.  Foreign :— (1.)  Great  Oolite  of  Lower  Oolite:— Amphitherium,  Thy- 

lacotherium.  (D.  448,  449;  Fig.:  World,  216.)  —  Phascolothe- 
rium.  (D.  448,  449 ;  Fig. :  World,  216,  223.)  —  Stereognalhus. 
(D.  447.) 

(2.)  Purbeck  beds  of  Upper  Oolite  :— Plagiaulax.  (D.  450.)  — 
Spalacolherium.  —  Galastes.  (D.  448.)  -  Stylodon.  (Owen, 
Geol.  Mag.,  iii.,  199;  Palseont.  Soc.,  xxiv.,  45.) 

3.  All  Marsupials.    —    Plagiaulax  were  rodent,  Galastes  carnivorous, 

and  all  the  others,  insectivorous.    —    Seventeen  European  Ju- 
rassic species  in  all. 
IV.  Eocene  Terrestrial  Mammals. 

1.  American  [Alabama  Period.  (D.  508-11.)  —  Green  River  and 
Vermillion  Creek  Groups.  (King,  Geol.  40th  Par.,  i.,  355)  -f 
Bridger  and  Uinta  groups.] 

(1.)  MARSUPIALS:—  Triacodon.    (Mh.  ii.,  123;  iv.,  222-3;  C.  III..  611.) 
(2.)  AMBLYPODA  :— (C.  VIII.,  179,  282.) 

Suborder  PANTODONTA.  (C.  III.,  187)  -.—Cvryphodon.  (L.  602,  506-7 ;  Mh.  xi.,425, 
May,  1876,  pi. ;  C.  VIII.,  187-250;  P.  A.  N.  S.,  1877,  616,  brain;  Owen,  Brit. 
Foss.  Mam.  and  Birds,  299.)  —  Baihmodon.  (C.  ILL,  585-8 ;  V.,  8  10 ;  VI.,  24- 
8;  VIII.,  187-250 ) 

Suborder  DINOCERATA,  Cope.    [See  below.] 

(3.)  DINOCEKATA.  (Mh.  v.,  Feb.,  1873,  plates;  Apr.,  1873,  and  Sup.  Note;  P.  A.  N. 
S..8  Apr.,  1873;  vii.,  App.  June,  1873;  xi.,  Feb..  1876,  plates;  C.  III.,  563-85; 
Owen,  Amer.  Jour.,  xi.,  401,  questioning  the  presence  of  horns) :—  Uintatherium. 
(D.  504:  Leidy,  III.,  93-103.  331-4;  C.  III.,  580.  —  Dinoceras.  (D.  504;  L.  503, 
606-7;  Mh.iv.,343;  v.,  117,293,  310;  xi.,  163,  plates.)  —  Tinoceras.  (Mh.  iv., 
322,  343;  v.,293;  Am.  Nat.  Jan.,  1873,  52.)  —  Eobasileus.  (C.,  P.A.N.S.,  Jan.  and 
Feb.,  1873;  C.  Am.  Nat.,  vii.,  1,  May,  1867;  C.  III.,  564,  575-80:  C.  IV.,  456.)  — 
These,  with  Loxulopfiodon,  Cope,  are  thought  by  Leidy  to  represent  only  one 
genus.  (L.  III.,  332.) 

(4.)  PERISSODACTYLA.  (Hux.,  292):— (a.)  Coryphodontidse.  (Mh.  xi.,  428;  xiv.,  81, 
plate :— [Pee  above.]  —  (6.)  Equida.  (Hux.,  295;  Mh.  vii.,  255;  viii.,/288;  L. 
509-10)  i—Eohippm.  (Mh.  xii.,  407.)  —  Orohippus.  (Mh.  iv.,  207;  v.,  407;  vi., 
19-22;  vii.,  247;  ix.,  247;  C.vi.,  19-22.)  —  (c.)  Tapiridse.  ( Hux.,  310 ;  Compare 
Cope  on  Rhinoceridx  and  related  Perissodactyls,  C.  IX.,  228.)  —  Lophiodon. 
(Leidy,  II.,  391 ;  III ,  219,  327 ;  Mh.  ii.,  36.)  —  PaUeosyop*.  (L.  504;  Leidy,  III., 
323-6) ;  C.  III.,  591 ;  Mh.  ii.,  36-8.) 

(3.)  AETIODACTYLA.    (Hux..  312):— Suidse:— Homacodon.    (Mh.  iv.,  126.) 
(6.)  BDNOTHERIA.    (C.  VIII.,  72.):— 

Suborder  CREODONTA.    (C.  VIII.,  85) :— Ambloclonus.    (C.  VIII.,  90-4.)    —    Oxy- 

xna.    (C.  VIII.,  95-105.)    —    Didymictis.    (C.  VIII.,  123-6.) 
Suborder  MESODONTA.    (C.  VIII.,  85 :— Microsyops.   (Leidy,  III,  82,320.)    — 
TomiOieriwn.    (C.  III.,  646-8;  VIII.,  135-45.)    —    Antiacodon.    (Mh.  iv.,  210.) 


—  37  — 

Suborder  INSECTIVOKA.    (C.  VIII.,  85) :—  Talpavus.    (Mh.  iv.,  128.)    —    Anisaco- 
don,    (Mh.  iv.,  209.)    —    Eslhonyx.    (C.  VIII.,  153.) 

Suborder  TILLODONTA.    (C.  VIII.,  85) :— [See  below.] 

Suborder  T^NIODONTA.    (C.  VIII.,  85, 157)  -.—Ectoganus.    (C.  VIII.,  158-62.)    — 

Calamodon.    (C.  VIII.,  162-70 ;  C.  P.  A.  Ar.  S.,  March ,  1876.) 
(7.)  TILLODONTIA.    (Mh.  xi.,  249-51,  plates)  -.—Titlotherium.    (L.  504;  Mh.v.  485;  ix., 

241:  xi.,  249,  plates;  C.  VIII.,  84,  85.)    —    Anchlppodus.    (Leldy,  II.,  403 ;  III., 

328 ;  Mh.  ix.,  241.) 
(8.)  RODENTIA  :— Plesiarctomys.    (C.  VIII.,  170-2.)    —    Sciuravus.    (Mh.  ii.,  122;  iv., 

220.) 
(9.)  CARNIVORA  -.—Limnocyon.    (Mh.  iv.,  126,  203.)    —    Limnofelis.    (Mh.  iv.,  202). 

—    Canis.    (Mh.  ii.,  123.)     —    Synaplotherium.    (C.  III.,   554-9,  plates;  VHL, 

75,  77.) 
(10.)  CHEIROPTERA  :— Nyctitherium.    (Mh.  iv.,  127 ;  v.  405.)    —    NyctUestes.    (Mh. 

iv.  215.) 
(11.)  PRIMATES:— (a.)  Lemuravidse.    (Mh.  ix.,  289;  xii.,  July,  1876) :— Lemuravus. 

(Mh.  ix.,  239.)    —    (6.)  Limnotheridoe.    (Mh.ix.,  239):—  Thinoleates.    (Mh.  iv., 

205.) 

2.  Foreign.     (D.  516-20.) 

(1.)  PERissoDACTYLA:-(a.)  Coryphodontidae:— Ooryphodon.  (Fig.:  World,  290.)  —  (6.) 

Palaeotheridse.    (Hux.,  212) :— Palseotherium.    (L.  497;  Daws.:  Story,  247;  Fig.; 

World,  282-3.)  —  (c.)  Tapiridae :— Lophiodon,  Hyracotherium,  etc.  —  (d.)  Suidse:— 

Chceropotamtis.    —    (e.)  Anoplotheridae.    (Hux.,  320) :— Anoplotherium.    (L.  498; 

Daws.:  Story,  249;   Fig.:  World,  284-5.)    —    Xiphodon.    (D.  517;  Fig.:    World, 

285-6.) 
(2 )  CARNIVORA  -.—Palxocyon,  Hyamodon,  Arctocyon,  Canis,  etc. 

V.  Miocene  Terrestrial  Mammals. 

1.  American,  (Yorktown  Period— White  River,  Colorado,  etc.)     (D. 
452.    For  white  R.  Fauna  of  Oregon,  see  C.  X.,  55-67.) 

(1.)  PERISSODACTYLA  :— (a.)  Equidse.  (See  under  Eocene)  -.—Mesohippus.  (D.505;Mh. 
ix.,  248.)  —  Miohippm.  (Mh.A.J.S.,  III.,  vii.,249.)=?  Anchithmum.  (Leidy,  I, 
64-74;  C.  IV.,  496-7;  IX.,  11-14.)  -  (6.)  Tapiridse  :-Loph iodon.  (See  Eoc.;  Mh.  ii., 
36-8.)  —  (c.)  Rhinoceridse  :—I>iceratherium.  (Mh.  iv.,  242.)  —  Rhinoceros. 
"(Leidy,  I.,  79-94.)  —  (d.)  Brontotheridae.  (Mh.  ix.,  245;  xi.,  335) :— £ronto- 
therium.  (D.507;  L.,505,  506-7;  Mh.,v.  486;  vii.,  81,  plates;  ix.,  March,  1875; 
xi.,  Apr.,  1876,  plates.)  —  Menodus.  (Pomel,  Bib.  Univ.  de  Geneve,  x.,  75,  Jan., 
im.-)=Titanotherium.  (D.  506 ;  W.  208 ;  Leidy,  I.,  72-8 ;  II.,  389 ;  Mh.  ii.,  35.)  — 
Megacerops.  (Leidy,  III.,  239,  335.) 

(2.)  ARTIODACTYLA  :— (a.)  Suidse :—Elotherium.  (Leidy,  I.,  57-66;  II.,  388;  III.,  320; 
Mh.  ii.,  39;  C.  V.  27.)  —  Dicotyles.  (Leidy,  II.,  384 ;  III.,  319.)  —  (6 )  Oreo- 
dontidse.  (Leidy.  III.,  199)  -.—Oreodon.  (D.  507;  L.  506;  Leidy,  L,  29-55;  III., 
201,  318.)  —  Affriochoerus.  (Leidy,  I.,  24-8:  III.,  319.)  —  (c.)  Hypertragu- 
lidse.  (C.  X.,  66)  -.—Hypertragulus.  (C.  IV.,  502 ;  V.,  26-7.)  —  Leptomeryx. 
(Leidy,  II.,  165,  383.)  —  (d.)  Tragulidae.  (Hux.,  326) :— Hypisodus.  C.  IV., 
501.)  —  (e.)  Camelidae  :—Poebroth£num.  (Leidy,  I.,  19-24 ;  II.,  141 ;  C.  IV.,  498; 
V.,24;  X.,  59.) 

(3.)  PROBOSCIDEA  :— ?  Mastodon.    (Leidy,  II.,  396.) 

(4.)  INSECTIVORA:— Herpetoiherium.    (C.  IV.,  465.)    —    Embassis.    (C.  IV.,  468.) 

(5.)  RODENTIA  :— Palzecastor.    (Leidy,  II.,  338-40, 406.)    —    Sciurus.    (C.  IV.,  475,) 


—  38  — 

(6)  CABNIVOBA:— Drepanodon  (Machserodus).  (Leidy,  II.,  54-64,  367 ;  C.  IX.,  9-10.) 
-  Hyxnodon.  (Leidy,  P.  A.  N.  S,  1853,  93,  392-3;  II.,  38-48,  369.)  -  Dinictis. 
(Leidy,  II.,  64-8.)  -  Canis.  (C.  IV.,  505-7 ;  C.  VIII.,  301;  IX,  8-9.) 

(7.)  PBiMATEs:-Jf*m>«imttm.    (C.  IV.,  510;  V.,  22.)     -     Laopithecus.     (Mh.  ix., 

240.) 
2.  Foreign.     (D.  518,  519-20.) 

(1.)  Ungulata:—  Anchitherium.  —  Hipparion.  ~  Hippotherium.  —  Equus.— 
Sus.  —  Hippopotamus.  —  Anoplolherium.  —  Camelopardalis.  —  Anti- 
lope.  —  Sivatherium. 

(1.)  PROBOSCIDEA  :-Jtfostod<7».  (Pig.:  World,  300-6.)  -  Elephas.  (L.  499 ;  Daws. : 
Story,  254.)  —  Dinotherium.  (D.  518;  L.  498;  Daws.:  Story,  251-3;  Ag. :  Sk.. 
189:  Fig.:  World,  298.) 

(3.)  INSECTIVORA  :— Erinoceus.     —    Talpa. 

(4.)  CARNIVORA:— Machserodus.  (L.  500;  Daws.:  Story,  250;  Leidy,  L,  94-9.)  - 
Felis.  —  Hysena.  —  Canis.  —  Viverra.  —  Ifustela. 

(5.)  Primates:— Pliopithecus.    —    Dryopithecus,  Mesopithecus.    (Fig. :  World,  307.) 

VI.  Pliocene  Terrestrial  Mammals. 

1.  American   (Suniter  Period.    --    Loup   Fork   of  Platte,  the  Nio- 

brara,  etc.)    (D.  492.) 

(1.)  Perissodactyla:— Protohippus.  (Leidy,  II.,  274-9,  401;  III.,  248;  C.  Ill,  523-8: 
V.,  15-9 ;  VIII.,  322;  Mh.  II,  xlvi.,  374;  vii.,  251,  253.)  —  Hipparion.  (D.  506; 
Leidy,  II,  280-92, 401 ;  III,  247-8;  C.  IV.. 522 ;  V.,  11 ;  VIII,  321.)  —  Pliohippus. 
(Uh.AJ.S,, IIL.vii.  252.)  -  Equus.  (Leidy,  II,  399-400 ;  III,  321-2;  Mh.  II,  xlvi, 
374.  —  Aceratherium.  (Leidy,  11,220-8,  390;  C.I  V,  520.)  -  Rhinoceros.  (Fig.: 
316;  Leidy,  II,  228, 390.)  —  Dicotyles.  (Mh.ii.,42.)  -  Platygonus.  (Mh.  ii, 
40-2.)  —  Merychippus.  (C.  V,  19;  VIII.,  324.)  —  Dicrocerus,  Lartet.  (C. 
VIII,  346-60.)= Aferychodus.  (Leidy,  II,  162-5.  382;  III,  318;  C.  Ill,  531.)- 
Oosoryx.  (Leidy,  II,  173, 183 ;  C.  Rep.  Vert.  Foss.  X.  Hex.,  16.)  —  Procamelus. 
(Leidy,  I,  147 ;  II,  147-57 ;  III,  258-9,  317 ;  C.  IV,  529-30;  V.,  20 ;  VIII,  325),  etc. 

(3.)  PROBOSCIDEA:— Elephas.  (Leidy,  II,  251-6,  397-9.)  —  Mastodon.  (Fig.: 
World,  314 ;  Leidy,  II,  240-51,  392-7 ;  C.  IV.,  531 ;  VI,  225-7  ;  VIII,  306-16.) 

(.4.)  EDENTATA  -.—Aforotherium.    (Mh.  xii,  61 ) 

('5.)  RODENTIA: — Castor,  Palaocastor,  Hystrix,  Taxidea,  Arctomys,  etc. 

(6.)  Carnivora :— Felis.  (Leidy,  P.  A.  P.  S,  1852, 261 ;  Trans.  A.  P.  S.,  1852,  322 ;  II., 
365-6.)  —  Canis.  (Leidy,  II,  28-30;  C.  V.  11;  VII,  301;  Allen,  Am.  Jour.,  xi,, 
49.) 

2.  Foreign.     (D.  519,  520) :— Elephas,  Mastodon,  Pithecits,  Semnopithe- 

cus,  Machferodus,  Putorius,  Ursus,  Lepus,  Arctomys,  Arvicola,  etc. 
Vn.  Quaternary  Terrestrial-Mammals. 

1.  American.    (D.  565-71 ;  L.  542-7;  Foster  :  Prehistoric  Races  of  U.  S., 

80.) 

(1.)  PERISSODACTYLA  :— Equtis.    Tapina.    (D.  567.) 
(2.)  ARTIODACTYLA  :— Dicotyles.    (Leidy,  II,  384.)    —    Ovibos.     {Leidy,  II.,  373-4), 

and  most  modern  genera. 

(3.)  PROBOSCIDEA  :— Elephas,  2  sp,  and  Mastodon,  1  sp. 
(4.)  EDENTATA  •.—Megatherium.  2  sp.    —    Megalonyx,  5  sp.    —   Afylodon,  4sp.    — 

Glyptodon,  1  sp.    (D.  520.  569 ;  L.  545, 546,  547.) 

(5.)  RODENTIA:— Oastoroides  and  most  modern  American  genera.    (D.  567.) 
(6.)  CABNIVOBA:— Felis,  Vrsus,  Machcerodus,  Qalera. 


—  39  — 

2.  Old  World  Species.  (D.  563-5  ;  L.  541,  547  ;  Dawkins  :  Q.  Jour. 
Geo.  Soc.,  xxv.,  192,  1869,  and  xxviii.,  410,  1872;  Rau:  Early  Man 
in  Europe,  23-30;  Lubbock:  Prehistoric  Times,  ch.  ix.) 

XV1IL  THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GLACIERS. 

On  Glaciers,  see  AGASSIZ:  Systeme  Glaeiaire;  CHARPENTIER:  Essais  sur  les  gla- 
ciers; TYNDALL:  Hours  of  Exercise  in  the  Alpt ;  RECLUS  :  The  Earth:  pp.,  162-221 ;  Payot: 
Guide  itineraire  au  Mont  Blanc;  CHAMBERU.I:  Rep.  Geol.  Wis.,  1876;  DANA:  Man.,  675- 
80 :  LECONTE  :  Elem.,  43-64 ;  LYELL  :  Principle*,  224-8.  On  the  Glacier  of  the  Rhone  traced 
to  Lyons,  see  Bibliotheque,  Univ.,  1870,  xxxviii.,  118,  and  Bid.  Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  1869, 
xxvi,  360.  On  the  Glaciers  of  Norway,  C.  de  Seue,  La  Neve  de  Justedal  et  ses  Glaciers;  1870. 

I.  Geography  of  the  Alps.  (Lantern  Views.) 

1.  Regions  of  the  High  Alps. 

2.  Alpine  Regions  and  Passes. 

3.  The  Bernese  Oberland  (90  miles  square.) 

II.  Geology  of  the  Alps. 

1.  General  Structure  of  the  Alps. 

2.  Section  from  Lucerne  to  Como. 

3.  Tunnel  under  Mont  St.  Gotthard. 

III.  Perspective  Views  of  the  Alps. 

1.  Mont  Blanc  Range  from  Geneva. 

2.  The  Bernese  Oberland  from  Bern. 

3.  Mont  Blanc  from  St.  Martin. 

4.  Les.  Ouches,  Mont  Maudit  and  Pic  du  Midi. 

5.  Chamonix  and  the  Mont  Blanc  from  above  Chamonix. 

6.  Mont  Blanc  and  the  valley  of  Chamonix,  from  the  Fle"gere. 

7.  Mont  Blanc,  from  the  Bre'vent. 

8.  The  Jungfrau  from  Interlaken. 

9.  Valley  of  Lauterbrunnen. 

10.  Valley  of  Lauterbrunnen  and  the  Gletscherhorn. 

11.  Falls  of  the  Staubbach. 

12.  The  Breithorn,  from  the  Miirren. 

13.  Panorama  from  the  Miirren. 

14.  The  Jungfrau  from  the  Wengern  Alp. 

15.  The  Jungfrau  and  hotel  from  the  Summit  of  the  Wengern  Alp. 

16.  The  Wetterhorn  from  Grindelwald. 

17.  The  Matterhorn  and  Gorner  Glacier,  near  Zermatt. 

18.  Gorge  of  the  Tamina  at  Pfeffers. 

IV.  The  Pinnacled  forms  of  Alpine  Summits. 

1.  Aiguille  de  Charmoz,  from  Montanvert. 

2.  Aiguille  de  Charmoz,  from  the  Chapeau. 

3.  Aiguille  du  Dru,  from  Montanvert, 


—  40  — 

4.  Glacier  des  Bois  and  Aiguille  du  Dru. 

5.  Grands  Mulets  and  Aiguille  du  Midi. 

V.  O-eneral  Views  of  Glaciers. 

1.  Mer  de  Glace,  from  the  Flegere. 
•2.  Mer  de  Glace,  from  Montavert. 

3.  Eiger  Glacer,  Eiger  and  Monk,  from  the  Wengern  Alp. 

4.  Church  and  Glacier  of  Grindelwald. 

5.  Glacier  of  Rosenlaui. 

6.  Glacier  of  the  Rhone. 

7.  Aletschhorn  and  Middle  Aletsch   Glacier  from  the   Egischhorn. 

VI.  Terminations  of  Glaciers, 

1.  Arch  of  Ice  at  Source  of  the  Arveiron. 

2.  Same  from  a  different  position. 

3.  Bridge  of  Ice,  Glacier  of  Langthal,  Oetzthal  in  Tyrol. 

4.  Another  Bridge  of  Ice,  Oetzthal. 

5.  Glacier  of  Langthal — ice-blocks  at  termination. 

6.  Source  of  the  Liitschine. 

7.  Vault  of  Ice,  Glacier  of  Rosenlaui'. 

8.  Terminal  Precipice,  Gorner  Glacier,  Zennatt. 

9.  Source  of  the  Rhine,  (Hinter  Rhine,)  from  the   Rheinwald  or 

Zapport  Glacier. 

VII.  Phenomena  of  Transportation  by  Glaciers. 

1.  Village  and  Glacier  of  Argentiere,  showing  lateral  moraines. 

2.  Hotel  -Montanvert,  showing  moraines  of  Glacier  of  Nant  Blanc. 

3.  Bridge  des  Gaillants,  showing  moraines  of  Glacier  des  Bossons. 

4.  Erratic  Blocks  on  the  Glacier  of  the  Aar. 

0.  Oberaarhorn  and  Glacier  of  Viesch,  from  Eggischhorn,  showing 

Median  Moraines. 

VIII.  Glacier  Motion  and  its  Consequences.  (Ref.  supra,  and 
Lect.  XIX.,  III.,  2.) 

1.  Summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  showing  Firn-fields. 

2.  The  Weissthor,  the  Cima  of  Jazzi  and  Monte  Rosa. 

3.  Diagram  of  Crevasses,  showing  their  cause. 

4.  Incipient  Crevasses  at  entrance  of  "Junction"  in  ascent  of  Mont 

Blanc. 

5.  The  Junction  and  the  Plateau,  showing  crevasses  more  advanced. 

6.  The  "  Difficult  Passage,"  Mer  de  Glace. 

7.  Another  Difficult  Passage. 

8.  Mer  de  Glace,  from  the  "Mauvais  Pas"— Chaos  of  Ice. 

9.  Grand  Pyramids,  Glacier  des  Bois. 

10.  Grand  Pyramids  of  Ice,  Glacier  of  Gaisberg,  Oetzthal. 

11.  Aiguilles,  Glacier  des  Bois. 


—  41  — 

12.  Crevasse  in  Glacier  of  Grindelwald. 

13.  Glacier  des  Bossons,  from  Pierre  Pointue. 

14.  S6racs  before  the  "  Junction." 

15.  Ladder  Passage,  departure  from  the  Junction. 

16.  Passage  of  the  Horizontal  Ladder,  Junction. 

17.  Aiguilles  des  Bossons,  and  the  Side  Wall. 

.  18.  Ladder  Passage,  Wall  of  Ice,  before  the  Grands  Mulets. 

19.  Precipices  of  Ice  and  Snow  above  the  Grands  Mulets. 
IX.  Causes  of  Catastrophes. 

1.  Great  Crevasses  below  the  Dome  du  Gouter. 

2.  "Grande  Crevasse"  at  the  Grand  Plateau,  Mont  Blanc. 

3.  Great  Crevasses,  impracticable  passage,  "Petites  Monties." 

4.  Disaster  from  an  Avalanche,  August  20,  1820. 

XLX.  THE  REIGN  OF  ICE. 

GEIKIE:  The  great  Ice  Age ;  NEWBEKRY  Qeol,  Ohio,  ch.,  xxx.  (vol.  ii),  and  iii.,  27; 
Annals  of  N.  Y.  Lyceum  of  Natur.  Hist.,  ix..  June,  1869 ;  Proc.  Boston  Sac.  N.  HM.,  x.,  May, 
1862  ;  N.  H.  Winchell,  Pop.  Sci.  Mon.,  June  and  July,  1873;  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  Ill,  i.,  15-9;  J. 
J.  Dana,  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  III.,  i.,  1,  125;  ii.,  233,  326;  E.  Andrews,  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  II., 
xlviii,  172 ;  Jos.  Leconte,  Anci&nt  Glaciers  of  the  Sierras,  Cal.  Acad.  Sci.,  16  Sep.,  1872  ;  A. 
J.  S.,  III.,  v.  325-42. 

I.  Familiar  Drift  Phenomena. 

1.  Incoherent  surface  accumulations.  (D.   527,  529 ;   L.  514-6.)      — 

Sands,  pebbles,  boulders,  clays.  (L.  514-6  ;  W.  220  "  Hog- 

backs" and  surface  configuration. 

2.  Smoothed,  striated  and  furrowed  rocks.  (D.  530:  L.  516;  W.  215, 

217-8;  Newberry:  Geol.  of  Ohio,  ii.,  12-9.) 

3.  Fiords.  (D.  533 ;  L.  534 ;  W.  220.)     -  -     Old  river  channels  some- 

times deeply  buried.  (D.  552 ;  W.  219-20 ;  Newberry :  Geol.  0., 
ii.,  12,  iii.,  27;  Boston  S.  N.  H.,  x,  May,  1862;  E.  Hitchcock: 
Geol.  Vt.,  i.,  215.) 

4.  All  these  phenomena  connected  together. 

II.  Sketch  of  Continent  at  End  of  Tertiary  Time.  (W.  213.) 

1.  Its  Geographical  Extent  and  Form. 

2.  Its  Topographical  and  Hydrographical  features. 

3.  Its  Forest  growths. 

4.  In  many  respects  similar  to  the  modern  continent.  (D.  525 ;  W. 

210.)     -  -    But  it  was  an  ancient  and  wasted  surface.  Sub- 

aerial  disintegration  of  rocks.  (W.  221 ;  also  in  Harper's  Geol. 
Rep.  Miss.,  1857 ;  W.  Brazil  in  the  Reign  of  Ice,  Cbllege  Courant, 
June  4  and  11,  1870;  Pumpelly,  Am.  Jour.,  xviii,,  142,  etc.) 
—  General  doctrine  of  continental  wastage. 


—  42  — 

HI.  How  the  preglacial  Continent  was  Renovated. 

1.  Northern  Elevation  and  increasing  cold.  (D.  539-40,  541 ;  W.  214.) 

—    Union  of  lands  previously  separated. 

2.  Glacier  formation,  growth,  movement  and  effects.    (On  Glacier 

motion,  see  further,  Mosely,   Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  xvii.,  202 ;  Phil. 
Mag.,  Aug.,  1871 ;  Croll,  Phil.  Mag.,  March,  1869;  Ball,  Phil.  Mag., 
July,  1878  ;  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  i,  268;  Mathews,  Alpine  Jour.,  Feb  ,  1870); 
John  Aitken,  Nature,  13  Feb.,  1873;  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  v.,  305. 
(1.)  Reminiscence  of  Alpine  glaciers.  (D.  675  8  ;  L.  43.) 
(2.)  Tremendous  effects  of  a  continental  glacier.  (D.  538  ;  W.  218-9.)     —     Prostra- 

tration  of  forests.    —    Plowing  and  removal  of  disintegrated  rock-surfaces. 

—     Smoothing  and  striation  of  hard  rocks.  (D.  538.1     —      Digging  of  some 

lake-basins.  (D.  539;  W.  225.)    —    Filling  of  old  river-channels  and  lake  out- 
.     lets.  (539;  W.  219-20,  225. 1    —    Desolation  in  nature.    —    Greenland  a  modern 

picture  of  continental  glaciation.  (D.  538.) 

3.  Thickness  of  the  Continental  glacier.  (D.  537  ;  Am.  Jour.,  v.,  1873; 

L.  527.)  —  Limited  by  the  thawing  influence  of  heat  escap- 
ing from  the  Earth.  (Matthew,  Canad.  Nat.,  vi.,  96.)  See  also 
Dana,  ut  sup.  and  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  v.,  217. 

4.  Extent  of  the  ancient  glaciers,  and  directions  of  the  ice-streams. 

(D.  528,  531,  537 ;  L.  519,  526-7.)  —  Movement  south-west 
along  the  upper  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  Lakes  Ontario  and 
Erie,  and  the  Maumee  river.  (D.  537 ;  Gilbert,  Geol.  Ohio,  i., 
540-4,  map) ;  Newberry,  Geol.  Ohio,  ii., 50-3,  map.)  --  The  Col- 
orado valley  supposed  not  glaciated.  —  Nor  the  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mts.  in  the  U.  S.  (D.  538;  Hayden,  Ann.  Rep.,  1874,  eh.,  iv.) 

-  The  western  glaciers  local.  (King,  Geol.  4Qth  Par.,  i.  460-1. 
But  see  R.  Brown,  Am.  Jour.,  II.,  1.,  318-24.)     —     Glaciers  in 
southern  Colorado.  (Endlich,  Hayden,  Ann.  Rep.,  1875,  216-26. 

-  Glaciation  in  Foreign  Countries.  (D.  532 ;  L.  530-2  ;  L.  Ag. : 
A.  J.  S.,  III.,  iv.,  135;  C.  F.  Hartt,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  i.,  294,  Brazil.) 

5.  Supposed  interglacial  epoch.  (D.  561;  L.  534;  S.  V.  Wood,  Geol. 

Mag.  Apr.,  1872 ;  Geikie,  Geol.  Mag.,  viii.,  ix. ;  A.  J.  S.,  III., 
iv.,  231.) 

6.  A  gradual  subsidence.  (D.  551,  555  ;  L.  521.)     —      Dissolution  of 

the  ice-fields.  (W.  222.)  -  -  Work  of  the  torrents.  (D.  553  ;  W. 
222.)  Freight  of  sediments.  (D.  553.)  Renovation  of 

southern  areas.  (D.  553 ;  W.  in  Harper's  Rep.  on  Miss.,  1857, 
317;  W.  222-3.  Compare  Tuomey,  Ala.  Geol.  Rep.,  1849,  2,  116, 
142.)  --  Stumps  of  the  glaciers  still  existing.  (King,  Geol.  40th 
Par.,  i.,  462  ;  Am.  Jour.,  i.,  157;  Davidson,  Proc.  Col.  Acad.  Sci., 
iv.,  1871, 161 ;  J.  Muir,  Overland  Monthly,  Dec.,  1872;  A.  J.  S.,  III., 
v.,  69;  Leconte,  Am.  Jour.,  iii.,  125;  v.,  325;  x.,  126 ;  Proc.  Acad. 
Nat.  Sci.,  Gal.,  iv.,  (pt.  v.,)  259.)  —  Ice-wells  .—Vermont. 


—  43  — 

'Hitchcock,  Geol  Vt.  i.,  192.)  —  Oswego.N.Y.,  (Am.Jour.,  I.,  xxxvi., 
104.)  Ice-mountain  in  Va.,  (Am.  Jour.,  I,  xlv.,  78.)  — 

In  "Wallingford,  Vt.  (Am.  Jour.,  I.,  xlvi.,  331.)  —  Ice-caverns 
in  Russia.  (Geol.  Russia,  i.,  186;  Lippincott's  Gazetteer,  Art., 
Yakotsk. 

7.  A  continental    submergence    generally    supposed.   (W.   228 ;    C. 

H.  Hitchcock,  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  S.,  1871 ;  A.  J.  8.,  III.,  ii.,  207.)  — 
Xot  established  for  the  Cordilleran  region.  (King,  op.  cit.,  i.,  466.) 

8.  A  slow  emergence  and  assorting  of  materials.  (L.  524  ;  W.  229.) 

-    The  assorting  possibly  the  work  of  glacier-torrents,  without 
submergence. 

XX.  POST  GLACIAL  HISTORY. 

Newberry :  Geology   of  Ohio,  ii.,  ch.  xxx ;  Dana,  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  v., 

198. 

I.  Reappearance  of  the  preglacial  Flora. 

1.  Floral  migrations  under  secular  changes  of  climate.     (D.  532,  543, 

599.) 

2.  Return  of  preglacial  types  from  the  south.    -  -    Arctic  or  glacial 

types  still  lingering  on  mountain  summits. 

II.  Migrations  of  Faunas.    (D.  542.)     --    A  South  American  Fauna 

in  the  United  States.    (D.  569.    Also  Lect.  XVII.,  VII.,  1,  (4).) 

III.  Early  Condition  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

1.  Their  present  relations  as  to  Altitude. 

2.  Former  altitudes.  (W.  241-3;  246;  L.  521.)     --    Terraces.  (W.  246- 

7;  L.  521-2;  Gilbert,  Ohio  Geol.  Rep.,  i.,  540-4.)  —  Rock  ero- 
sions. (W.  246-7.) 

3.  Former  Geographical  Extent.     (D.  552  ;  W.  241 ;  W.  Michigan,  77.) 

—    Low  lacustrine  borders.  (D.  552.) 

4.  Ancient  outlets  and  connections.    (Newberry,  Geol.  Ohio,ii.,  12-9.) 

(l.i  By  Little  Bay  de  Noquet.  (W.  Michigan,  28-9 ;  N.  H.  Winchell,  A.  J.  S.,  i.  19.) 
(2.)  By  Green  Bay,  Lake  Winnebago  and  the  Wisconsin  chain.    (N.  H.  Winchell, 

A.  J.  S.,  i.,  15-9.) 
(3.)  By  the  Illinois  river.  (D.  540,  552,  553 ;  E.  Andrews,  Trans.  Chic.  Acad.  Sci.,  ii., 

14.) 

(4.)  By  the  Maumee  river.  (D.  540,  5*2;  Gilbert,  A.  J.  S.,  i.,  342-4.) 
to.)  A  channel  across  the  Lower  Peninsula  of  Mich.  (W.  Mich.,  15-6.) 
(6.)  Submerged  outlets  of  the  Connecticut  and  Hudson  rivers.  (D.  423, 540.) 

IV.  Subsidence  of  Lakes. 

1.  Removal  of  Barriers  of  the  Great  Lakes.  (W.  542.)  --  The  Nia- 
gara barrier,  its  effect,  and  the  result  of  its  degradation.  (W. 
235.) 


—  44  — 

2.  Desiccation.  —  Quaternary  lakes  of  the  far  west.  (King,  Geol. 
40th  Par.,  i.,  490;  Stevenson,  Wheeler,  .Rcp.,iii.,  453-71.  --  Lake 
Bonneville.)  Gilbert,  Wheeler  Rep.,  iii.,ch.  iii. ;  Howell,  ib.,  250- 
1;  Hayden:  Rep.,  Wyom.,  1870,  72-3;  Pacif.  R.  R.  Rep.,  ii.,  97; 
King,  Geol.  40th  Par.,  i.,  490-504.)  --  Lake  Lahontan.  (King, 
Geol.  40th  Par.,  i.,  504-29,  maps.) .  —  Coronado's  Lakes.  (End- 
lich,  Hayd.  Rep.,  1875, 147-8.)  -  -  Other  extinct  lakes.  (Hayden : 
Ann.  Rep.,  1874,  48.)  --  Deposits  of  Marl  and  Peat.  W.  237; 
King,  Geol  40th  Par.,  i.,  ch.  vi.) 

XXI.  POST-GLACIAL  HISTORY.    (Continued.) 

I.  Aqueous  Erosions. 

1.  The  recession  of  Niagara  Falls.  (D.  553;  W.  235,  244;  Hall,  Geol. 

N.  Y.,  4th  Dist.,389-,  Foster:  Prehist.  Races  U.  S.,  376-7.)  — 
Data.  (W.  245.)  —  Consequences. 

2.  Recession  of  the   Falls  of  St.   Anthony.  (N.  H.   Winchell,  Geol. 

Minn.,  1876;  Q.  J.  G.  S.,  Lond,  Nov.,  1878,  886-900;  Southall: 
Epoch  of  the  Mammoth,  ch.  xxiii.) 

3.  'Deepening  of  river  gorges.  (L.  529  ;  W.  344.) 

4.  Changes  of  River  channels.    —    The  Ohio.  (D.  553.)    —    The 

Hoang-Ho.  (Purnpelly,  Smiths.  Cont.,  xv.,Art.  iv. ;  Am.  Jour.,  II., 
xlv.,  219;  Bickmore,  Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xlv.,  209;  Martin,  Am.  Jour., 
II.,  xlvii.,  100;  Richthofen:  China,  12,. 85-7.)  --  Mississippi 
Bayous.  (Ly.:  Prin.,  215-7.)  --  The  Rhine.  (D.  556.)  --  In 
Vermont.  (Hitchc. :  Geol.  Vt.,  i.,  215.) 

5.  Dissolution  of  Sea-Coasts.  (L.  32-6.) 

H.  Fluviatile  Formations.    --    Alluvium.   (D.649;  L.  22-3,  522-4.) 

—  Deltas.  (D.  651;  L.  24-7;  Ly. :  Prin.,  208-13.)    --    Mississippi 
Delta.  (Ly. :  Travels,  2d  vis.,  ii.,  ch.  xxi ;  Humphreys  and  Abbott: 
Rep.  Miss.  River.)    —    Bars.  (D.  660;  L.  30.)        -     Rafts.  (Ly. : 
Prin.,  213.)    --    Terraces.  (D.  558-9.)    --    Mud-lumps.  (Hilgard( 
A.  J.  S.,  III.,  i.,  238,  356,  425.) 

m.  Sandy  Deserts  and  Dunes.  (Marsh:  Man  and  Nature,  ch.  v.) 

1.  Drifting  sands.  (L.  520.)    —    Dunes  of  Western  Europe.  (Marsh : 

loc.  tit.)  --  Of  Africa.  (Ly.:  Prin.,  702;  Reclus,  91.)  --  Of 
Lake  Michigan.  (W.  Michigan,  13.)  —  Of  Nebraska.  (Aughey, 
Hayd.  Rep.,  1874,  259.) 

2.  The  Sahara.  (Re"clus :  Earth,  90-5.)    —    An   ancient  sea-bottom. 

—  Some  portions  still  below  the  Mediterranean.    —    Project 
of  inundation.     (Internal.  Rev.,  iv.,  138-9;  Nature,  Apr.  3,  1879, 
509;  Scribner's  Month.  ;  Engineering  and  Min.  Jour.) 


—  4.5  — 

3.  Deserts  in  Poland.  (Naumann:  Geognosie,  ii.,  1173.  —  Arabian 
Nefouds.  (Reclus:  Earth,  95.)  --  Gobi.  (Re"clus,  95;  Richtho- 
fen:  China.)  —  Sandy  Steppes  of  Tart ary.  (Reclus:  Earth,  87- 
9.)  —  Grandes  Landes  of  Gascony.  (Rgclus:  Earth,  81.) 

IV.  Campestral  Formations. 

1.  Prairies,  grassy  steppes,  pampas,  llanos,  puszta.  (W.  264  ;  Re"clus: 

Earth,  85,  98-101;  Humboldt:  Aspects  of  Nature,  Am.  ed.,  25-165.) 
-  Tundras.  (Reclus,  86.)  —  Buried  Mammoths.  (W.  N.  Y. 
Daily  Trib.,  17  Aug.,  1878.)  --  Bogs.  (Re"clus:  Earth,  83,413-8; 
Ly. :  Prin.,  ch.  xlvi.;  Hunt:  Can.  Nat.,  II.,  i.,  426.)  —  Peat  and 
Muck.  (S.  W.  Johnson,  Trans.  Conn.  Slate  Agrie.  Soc.,  1857  and 
1858.) 

2.  Loess-covered  surfaces.  (Pumpelly,  /Jwur.Jbw.,xviii.,133;  Aughey, 

Hayd.  Rep.,  1874,  245-50);  Richthofen:  China. 

V.  Post-glacial  Volcanoes.  (L.  Am.  Jour.,  xviii.,  35.) 

VI.  Coral  Structures.    —    Polynesian  Coral  Islands.  (D.  583.)    — 

The  peninsula  of  Florida.  (W.  231.) 

XXII.  RELICS  OF  PRIMEVAL  MAN. 

RAU:  Early  Man  in  Europe,  1876;  LUBBOCK:  Prehistoric  Times,  3d 
ed.,  London,  1872;  FIGUIER:  Primitive  Man,  Am.  ed.,  1870;  VOGT:  Lec- 
tures on  Man,  London,  1864;  FOSTER:  Prehistoric  Races  of  the  U.  S.,  Chi- 
cago, 1874. 

I.  Primeval  Man  Known  to  Inductive  Science  chiefly  through 

European  Belies. 

II.  Primeval  Man  in  Europe.  (L.  561,  etc.) 

1.  Historical  allusions.  (Homer :  Odyss.,  ix.,  113-4, 108,  122,  124,  160, 

167,244,  125-128,  271-275;  Hesiod:  Theog.,  133,139;  Aeschylus: 
Prometh.,  462-4;  Aristotle:  Politico.,  1.  i.,  c.  1.;  Plato:  Leges; 
Pausanias:  Descr.  of  Greece,  1.  viii.,  c.  1,  \  2,  5,  6;  1.  v.,  c.  17,  {j  1, 
3;  1.  x.,  c.  17  J  2 ;  Diod.  Sic.,  1.  v.,  c.  65 ;  Virgil :  Mmid,  viii.,  314- 
18 ;  Tactitus :  Germ.,  c.  46.) 

2.  Race  affinities  of  these  men.  (Vogt:  Lect.,  370-93.) 

III.  Archaeological  Discoveries.  (L.  563,  etc. ;  W.  352.) 

1.  Caverns  and  Rock-shelters.  (D.  574,  575,  576 ;  L.  536-9,  563-5 ;  Rau, 

ch.  ii.,  iv.;  Lubbock,  ch.  x.;  Fig.,  56-82,  85-90.    Dawkins:  Cave 

Hunting.) 

(1.)  Where  explored.  (Rau,  ch.  ii.,  iy.) 
(2.)  What  they  contain.  (Ran,  ch.  ii.,  iv.) 

2.  River-Drifts.  (Rau,  ch.  i. ;  Lubbock,  ch.  xi.) 

3.  Loess  and  Moraines. 

4.  Volcanic  Tuff. 

5.  Peat  Bogs.  (L.  539,  542.) 


—  46  — 

6.  Kitchen  Middens.  (D.  577  ;  L.  566;  Rau,  ch.  v.:  Lubbock,  ch.  vii.; 

Fig.,  129-34.)    --    On  the  Pacific  Coast.  (Schumacher,  Bui.  Hayd. 
Surv.,  in.,  27-56.)  - 

7.  Megaliths  and  Tumuli.  (Lubbock,  ch.  v. ;  Fig.,  184-207.)    -  -     Cist- 

vaens,  Barrows,  Dolmens  and  Cromlechs. 

8.  Lake  Dwellings.  (D.  576;  L.  566:  Lubbock,   ch.   vi;  Fig.,   135-7, 

215-30.)     --     What  they  are.     —    What  they  yield.  (Fig.,  240- 
87.)  Crannoges.  (D.  576;  Lubbock,  177  ;  Fig.,  230-1.) 

Terramares.  (Fig.,  232-9.) 

9.  Parallel  facts  supplied  by  modern  savages.  (Lubbock,  ch.  xiii-xv  ; 

Origin  of  Civilization.) 

IV.  Intrepretation  of  the  Pacts. 

1.  Divisions  of  prehistoric  time.  (D.  574;  L   561  ;  Lubbock,  ch.  i.) 
(1.)  Ages :— Stone.  (Lub.,  ch.  iv  ;  Fig.,  1-202.)     —     Bronze.  (Lub.,  ii-iii  ;    Fig..  205- 

93,)    —    Iron.  (W.  353;  Fig.,  297-332.) 
(2.)  Stone  Age  sub  divided  into  three  epochs. 
(3.)  Cannot  be  used  for  chronometric  purposes.  (W.  353 ;  Rau.,  12.) 

2.  Geological  conditions  in  the  Stone  Age.  (W.  361.) 

3.  Characters  of  Prehistoric  Europeans.  (Rau,ch.  iii-iv;  Lub.,  ch.  x.) 
(1.)  Physically.  (Rau,  81;  Lub.,  337-40;  Fig.,  112-6;  Vogt,  370-93.) 

(2.)  Socially  and  Intellectually.  (W.  363-5;  Rau,  66-70,  83,  etc  ,  ch,  v ;  Lub.,  586  Fig., 

128, 137-83,  258-70.) 

(3.)  .aesthetically.  (W.  358,  355-6;  Rau,  60-6,  71-9,  85-6, 103-5,  Lub.,  29-44,  335-5.) 
(4.)  Religiously.  (W.  366 ;  Fig.,  280-3.) 

V.  Primeval  Man  in  America.   (Lub.,    ch.  vii ;    Foster,  op.  cit.; 

Squier   and    Davis:    Ancient  Monuments    Miss.   Vol.;   Lapham : 
Antiquities  of  Wis,:  Haven:  Archaeology  of  the  U.  S.) 

1.  Mounds  and  Tombs.  (Lub.,  267-77  ;  Fost.,  ch.  iii,  v,  vi,  viii,  x.) 

2.  Earth-works.  (Lub.,  259-63 ;  Lapham:  Antiq.  Wis.) 

3.  Mining  Hammers.  (Fost.,  ch.  vii.) 

4.  Shell-heaps.  (Fost.,  ch.  iv.) 

5.  Remains  beneath  lava   in  California.  (Fost.,  52-6.    Lect.  XLVII.) 

6.  Mesa    Ruins    or  Cliff-Dwellings.    (Ives :    Explor.   Col.   Riv.,  119, 

Moquis ;  Jackson,   Hayd.  Rep.,  1874,   369-81,  plates  ;  Hayd.  Rep., 
1875, 12,  23-4.) 

XXIH.   METHOD  OF  CONTINENTAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

DANA,  Proc.  Am.  Assoc.,  1856,  pt.  ii.,  1-25,  chart;  id.,  1855, 1-36;  Manual  Geol.,  389-90, 
691;  Am.  Jour.  Set.,  II.,  xxii.,  335;  WINCHELL:  Sketches  of  Creation,  ch.  xxvii.;  KING: 
OeoHQth  Parallel,!.,  ch.  vi.  and  viii. ;  GEIKIE,  Proceed.  Hoy.  Geograp.  Soc.;  Popular  Sci. 
Monthly,  Sep.,  1879.  On  the  Geological  History  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  see  E.  W.  Hilgard.  Proc. 
A.  A.  A.  S.,  1871,  222  ;  A.  J.  Sci.,  III.,  ii.,  391. 

I.  Primordial  Wrinkles  the  Germs  of  Land-Masses.  (Lect. 
XXXIX.)  --  Cause  of  wrinkles.  —  Their  location.  —  The 
system  of  contraction  and  upheaval. 


—  47  — 

n.  The  Continent  of  Palaeozoic  Time. 

1.  Composed  of  Archaean  sediments.  (D.  161.)    —    These  the  ruins 

of  an  older,  unknown  land. 

2.  Location  and  Form  of  the  Palaeozoic  Continent. 

(1.)  The  Laureutian  limb.  (D.  148.)  —  Detached  insular  Laurentian  exposures. 
(D.  150;  Lect.  III.,  III.,  2.  Also  Irving,  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  v.,  281,  map;  J.  H.  Eaton, 
III.,  v.,  414,  map  ;  Hind.  A.  J.  S.,  II.,  xlix,  317-55,  in  Nova  Scotia.) 

(2.)  The  Cordilleran  limb.  —  Consisted  of  emerging  peaks  of  the  Cordilleran 
range*  from  the  Colorado  to  the  Humboldt  ranges.  (King,  40<A  Par.  i.,  ch.  L, 
id.,  5:J4 ;  Kewb.,  Ives  Color.  Exped.,  47 ;  Peale,  Hayd.  Ann.  R<y>,,  1875,  68-9.)  - 
Thought  by  King  to  have  beeen  a  continuous  land  area  before  Cambrian 
Time.  (King.  40tA  Par.,  i.,  533,  531,  7^9-30.  Compare  Newb.,  Ives  Col.  Exp. 
Exped.  and  Peale  Hayd.  Ann.  Rep.,  1875-68.)  —  The  Nevada  Mass  continued 
continental.  (King,  40M  Par.,  i.,  731.)  —  But  subsided  at  end  of  Palaeozoic. 
(King,  40fA  Par.,  i.,  732.) 

3.  Origin  of  sediments  and  supposed  subsidence  of  Appalachian  re- 

gion. (D.  101,  251 ;  L.  254-5.)    —    This  implies  a  land-region  to 
the  north-east  of  the  present  continent. 

4.  Great  thickness  of  Palaeozoic  sediments  (40,000  ft.)  along  the  bor- 

der of   the   Nevadan  continent.  (King,  4Qth  Par.,  i.,  731.)      — 
Great  subsidence  of  Palaeozoic  sea-bottom.  (King,  732.) 

5.  The  configuration  of  America  due  to  the  topography  of  the  Pre- 

cambrian  continent.  (King,  4Qth  Par.,  i.,  533,  751.) 

6.  Europe  mostly  submerged  during  Palaeozoic  Time.  (Geikie,  Pop. 

Sci.  Monthly,  Sep.,  1879,  599.     —     The  Northern  land  of  Europe 
and  the  Northern  Ocean. 

III.  The  Continent  of  Mesozoic  Time.  (D.  481.) 

1.  Composed  of  Palaeozoic  and  Archaean  sediments. 

2.  Its  duplex  constitution. 

(1.)  The  Laurentian  limb.  —  Its  south-eastward  and  south-westward  growth.  (D. 
3^3,431.)  —  Comparative  completeness. 

(2.)  The  Cordilleran  limb.  —  The  Palaeozoic  sea  becomes  dry  land  forming  the 
Great  Basin  and  the  Wahsatch.  (King,  40th  Par.,  i.,  ch.  ii,,  Map ;  id.  536-7,  731-2 
759 ;  D.  520.)  — .  And  the  Xevadan  Continent  sinks  beneath  the  sea.  (King, 
537,  732.)  —  Distinction  between  subsidence  of  a  lightened  continental  mass 
and  of  a  loaded  sea-bottom.  —  The  latter  gradual,  the  former  cataclysmic. 
(King,  i.,  732.)  —  The  western  shore  of  this  continent  trended  meridionally, 
fhe  eastern,  retreated  south  westward  into  Arizona.  (King,  i.,  733.)  —  Nu- 
merous, and  some  extensive,  islands  in  the  Mesozoic  ocean,  along  the  Rocky 
mountain  region. 

3-  The  great  intercontinental  ocean  between  the  Wahsatch  and  the 
Mississippi  valley.  (D.  481,  520  ;  King,  i.,  537,  733.) 

4.  Europe  still  mostly  submerged.  (D.  481.)        —        Land  growing 

southward.  (Geikie,  Pop,  Sci.  Mon.,  Sep.,  1876,  601.) 

5.  South  America  more  extensively  submerged. 

IV.  The  Continent  of  Caenozoic  Time.  (D.  520.) 
1.  Composed  of  pre-cenozoic  sediments. 


—  48  — 

2.  The  twin  areas  connected.  —  Uplift  of  Rocky  Mountain  region 
and  a  portion  of  the  Great  Plains.  (King,  40th  Par.,  i.,  360;  ch. 
iv.,  and  map ;  D.  480.) 

3-  The  great  mediteranean  seas  or  "Tertiary  lakes"  of  North  Amer- 
ica. (Newb.,  Hayd.  Rep.  Wyoming,  J870,  329-39;  Hayden  :  Ann. 
Rep.,  1872,33;  id.  1874,  47.) 
(1.)  Residual  portions  of  the  Mesozoic  intercontinental  ocean.  Shifted  and 

enlarged,  however,  by  regional  subsidences.  (King,  i.,  754-6.) 
(2.)  Their  locations,  extent  and  names.  (King,  i.,  458 ;  Lect.  XVI.) 

4.  The  mediterranean  seas  of  Europe.    (D.  480.) 

5.  The  condition  of  South  America.      —       The  Andes  under  water. 

(D.  480.) 

6.  The  final  uplift  and  consummation.    —    But  very  gradual. 
V.  Unity  of  Method  in  Continental  Growth.  (D.  29-38.) 

1.  Ultimate  forms  foreshadowed  from  the  beginning.  (D.  147,  160, 

393-4  ;  King,  40th  Par.,  L,  751.)       —       Two  great  water  sheds  on 
the  Laureutian  limb,  each  with  two  branches.  (D.  24,  160.) 
The  northern  branches  diverge,  the  southern  converge. 
The  Cordilleran  limb  also  grew  from  its  Archaean  germ. 

2.  To  what  extent  have  continents  and  oceans  exchanged  places  ? 

(D.  160,  250.) 

(1.)  The  old  idea  of  general  exchanges. 
(2.)  The  later  idea  of  no  exchanges. 

(3.)  The  truth  lies  between.    —    Some  subordinate  exchanges.  (King,  i.,  731-2,  746, 
755, 756.)   —   Still,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  have  never  been  continental. 

XXIV.  MOUNTAIN-BUILDING. 

MALLET  :  (See  references,  Lect.  XXVI  and  Part  II);  HUNT:  Chemical  and  Geological 
Essays,  241-82,  328-48;  HALL:  PoJ.xontology  of  New  York,  iii.,  185!),  Introduction,  57-% : 
LKCONTE:  Elements  of  Geology,  1878, 240-60;  Am.  Jour.  Scl.,  III.,  iv.,  354  and  460-72;  KING: 
Geology  of  the  40  h  Parallel,  L,  ch.  viii.,  Orography;  GILBERT:  Orography,  in  Wheeler 
Report,  Vol.,  iii.,  ch.  i. ;  WHITNEY  :  Mountain  Building,  in  N.  A.  Review ;  H.  D.  ROGERS  : 
Geology  of  Pennsylvania,  Vol.,  it.,  pt.  ii.,  885-941;  VOSE:  Orographic  Geology,  Boston ,  1866. 
8vo.,  136pp. ;  BABBAGE:  Proc.,  Oeol.  Soc.,  London,  ii. ;  SIR  JOHN  HERSCHEL:  Prnc.  Genl. 
Soc.,  London,  ii. ;  NACMAMN  :  Geognosie,  I.,  337-633. 

Two  distinct  origins  of  Mountains.  By  upheaval  and  by 

relief. 

I.  Mountains  of  Upheaval. 
1.  Primordial  wrinkling  of  the  terrestrial  crust. 

(1.)  Cause  of  the  wrinkling.  (D.  739;  L.  240,  252-4 ;  see  further,  Part  II.) 
(2.)  Location  of  some  primitive  wrinkles. 

(a.)  Laurentian  nucleus.       —       Appalachian.  (D.  150.)       —        Cordilleran, 
especially  between  Ion.  105°  and  115°  30\  (King,  i.,  ch.  i.,  and  map.    See 
also  Lect.  XXXIII.,  II.,  (2).)    —    Scandinavian.  (D.  151.) 
(6.)  Perhaps  Caribbean,  Lemurian,  Indian. 
(8.)  These  not  originally  lofty  mountain  masses. 


—  49  — 

2.  Progressive  development  and  wear  of  these  wrinkles. 
(1.)  Source  of  materials  for  sedimentation. 

(2.)  Deposition  along  coast-borders.    (L.  254-6.) 
(3.)  Parallel  ranges  developed  successively  coastward.  (L.  257.) 
(4.)  Simple  and  complex  mountain  folds.   (L.    '242-3;   Whitney:  Qeol.   Col.,  121' 
( 'omstock,  in  Jones'  Rep.  N.  W.  Wyom,,  139- Wind  R.  Mts.)  —    The  lowest  rocks 
exposed  along  the  eroded  crest.  (L.  242-5.) 
i.r>.)  Indications  of  successive  uplifts.    —     Section  across  the  Adirondacs.    —     In 

the  Rocky  Mountains.  (Wheeler  Rep.,  iii.,  499.) 
(6.  High  inclinations  and  overturns  of  strata. 

(ft.)  Appalachians.  (D.  396;  Safford  :  Geol.  Tenn. ,  185, 190.)  Green  Mts. 

(D.  213.) 
(b.)  Elk  Mts.  Col.  (D.  740;  L.  176;  Peale,   Hayd.  Rep..  1873,  256,  plates  xyil., 

xviii.;  Holmes,  Hayd.  Rep.,  1879,  68-71,  and  maps  and  chart  of  sections.)' 
(c.)  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mts.,  Col.  (Endlich,  Hayd.  Rep.,  1875,  121-3,  plates,  125.) 
(rf.)  In  foreign  countries.  (Murchison:  Sttwria,  96,  Malvern  Hills,  501,  Alps. 
See  also  Rogers.-  Geol.  Penn.,  ii.,  901-2,  ideal  section  of  Alps  ;  and  Hunt: 
Op.  'fit.,  328-48.) 

3.  The  Synclinorium  theory  of  Mountain  making.     (D.  748-50,  211- 
.      14,  244,   251,   275,   305 ;  L.  252-60  ;  Hall :  Pal.  N.  Y.,  iii.,  Introd. 

Comp.  King,  i.,  731  :  Hunt:  Chem'.  and  Geol.  Ess.,  49-58.) 
Secular  contraction  of  the  earth  pronounced  inadequate.  (But- 
ton, Penn.  Monthly,  May  and  June,  1876;  Fisher,- Cambridge  Phil. 
Trans.,  xii.    See  further,  Part  II.) 

4.  Faulting.  (741 ;  L.  258,  261,  263.) 
(1.)  In  Silurian  rocks.  (D.  214~-5.) 

(2).  In  the  Appalachians,  20,000  feet.  (D.  398-400,  647 ;  L.  261;  Safford  :  Qeol.  Tenn., 

142, 144, 185.) 
3.)  In  the  Colorado  Range  6,000  to  7,000  feet.  (King,  i.,  730.)  Park  Range 

10,000  feet.  (King,  i.,  730.) 
(4.)  In  the  Uriita  Mts,  20,000  to  25,000  ft.  (L.  242,  263;  King,  i.,  730;  Powell:   Wnta 

Mts..  12,  Atlas,  plates  i.,  ii.,  iii.) 

(5.)  Along  the  Wahsatch  Range,  3,000  to  40,000  ft.  (King,  i.,  44,  730,  745-6-) 
(6.)  Along  the  Basin  Ranges  generally,  from  Salt  Lake  to  Carson  Lake.  (King,!., 

735  and  maps,  x.,  xi.  and  xii.) 

(7.)  The  Sierra  Nevada,  3,000  to  10,000  ft.  (King,  i.,  744.) 
(8.)  Disapearauce  of  half  an  anticlinal  by  downthrow  along  a  fault.         -      Sierra 

Nevada,  Wahsatch,  Unita  and  other  Ranges.  (See  foregoing  references.) 
(9.)  Monocliual  ridges  and  "  Kaibab  structure."  (Powell:    Uiiita  Mts.,  10-16;  also 

Gilbert  and  Howell,  in  Wheeler  Rep.,  iii. ;  Rogers:  Geol.  Penn.,  ii.,  920-1.) 

5.  Thickness  of  sediments  in  mountains  of  upheaval.  (D.  210,  749 ; 

L.  244,243-6;  Rogers:  Geol.  Penn.,  ii.,  779.)  --  Metarnorphism. 
(D.  750,  400;  L.  357;  Hunt:  op.  cit.,  18-34 :  Daubr6e,  Annales  des 
Mines,  V.  xvi.,  155-393,  Trans.  Smiths.  Ann.  Rep.,  1861,  228-304.) 

6.  The  Cordilleran  chain  mostly  formed  by  upheaval.  (L.  241.) 

7.  Vertical  movements  generally  slow.  (D.  754  ;  L.  244  ;  Lyell;  Prin. 

159-69;  Safford:  Qeol  Tenn.,  183.) 
D 


—  SO- 
IL Mountains  of  Belief. 

1.  By  erosion  of  horizontal  or  slightly  tilted  strata.    (Rogers  :  Geol. 

Perm.,  ii.,  927-33.)  Table   mountains.    (D.  246 ;  Whitney: 

Geol.  Cal,  211,  248  ;  Powell :   Uinta  Mts.,  18.) 
(1.)  Excavation  of  basins  and  valleys  in  such  strata.     —      Central  Tennessee.  (W. 

342;  Safford:  Geol.  Tenn.,  97-104.)    —    The  Cumberland  Table  Land.   (W.  343; 

Safford:  Geol.  Tenn.,  66-79.     —     Amazonian  valley  borders.  (Ag. :  Journey  in 

Brazil ;  Orton :  Andes  and  Amazon.)    —    Uinta  Mountain  or  Range.  (Powell : 

Uinta  Mts.;  King,  i.,  9.  753.) 
(2.)  Removal  of  formations  along  one  border.    (L.  249-50.)      -  -      Appalachians. 

(Rogers:  Geol.  Penn.,  ii.,  920-1.)    —    Many  ranges  in  the  Great  Basin.  (Gilbert, 

Wheeler  Rep.,  iii.,  ch.  i.,  sec.  i.)     --      But  these  perhaps  faulted  anticlinals. 

(Howell,  Wheeler  Rtp.,  iii.,  ch.  viii.,  sec.  i. ;  King,  i.,  735,  iii.,  45.) 
(3.  Removal  along  both  borders.     —     The  Catskills.     —     The  Appalachians.  (L. 

241.)    —    Mt.  Dana  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  (Lee  ,  Am.  Jour.,  June,  1873,  v.  452.) 

2.  By  erosion  along  anticlinals.  (D.  749 ;  L.  246 ;  Rogers :   Geol.  Penn., 

ii.,  933-6. 

(1.)  Mountains  of  upheaval  completed  as  mountains  of  relief.  (D.  647 ;  L.  246.) 
(2.)  The  synclinal  structure  in  mountains.  (D.  213,  748;  L.  248.) 

to.)  Examples :— Taconic  Mts.  (D.  213-14,  750.)  --  Greylock.  (D.  214.)  •  - 
Green  Mts.  (D.  750.)  —  Alleghanies.  (D.398;  Rogers:  Geol.  Pa.,  i.,  13;  ib., 
ii.,  926.) 

(6.)  Coast  Range.  (Whitney:  Geol.  Cal.,  i.,  14, 144.)    —    Wahsatch  Range.  (Hay- 
den  :  Ann.  Rep.,  1872, 16.) 
(3.)  Anticlinal  vaUeys.    —    Appalachians.  (Rogers:  Geol.  Penn.,  ii.,  922-23.) 

Valley  of  East  Tennessee.    (L.  246;  Safford:  Geol.  Tenn.,  144.      --     Other  ex- 
amples. (Powell:  Color.  River,  fig.  55  ;  Murch.:  Silur.  126.) 

(4.)  All  sculpturing  the  work  of  erosion.  (L.  245-50.)  —  Pinnacles  and  Peaks:— 
Castle  Range,  Cal.  (Whitney:  Geol.  Cal.,  i.,  33.)  —  Granitic  pinnacles.  (*&., 
373.)  —  Mt.  Brewer,  (ib.,  380-1.)  —  Yo  Semite,  (tb.,  407-23.)  —  Other  Cal. 
peaks,  (ib.,  424-37.)  -  Wahsatch  Range.  (King:  40th  Par..  L,  44,  pi.  i.)  - 
Elk  Mts.,  Col.)  ;Hayden :  Rep.,  1874,  ch.  v.,  and  maps;  also,  1873.)  —  In  Wy- 
oming. (Hayden :  Rep.,  1872,  47.)  --  Colorado  valley.  (Ives,  Explor.  Col.,  48, 
49, 50,  52,  55,  62.)  —  "  Needles"  of  the  Swiss  Alps.  CLect.  XVIII.,  IV.) 

3.  Relief  mountains  not  always  metamorphic. 

III.  Types  of  Mountain  Structure.  (Powell :   Uinta  Mts.,  9-29  ;  also 
Explor.  Color.  R.,  ch.  xi.,  and  Am.  Jour.,  xii.,  414-28,  illus.) 

XXV.  PRINCIPAL  EPOCHS  OP  GEOGRAPHIC  DISTURBANCE. 

I.  Chronological  Arrangement. 

1.  Presilurian  : — Laurentides.        -     Adirondacks.    —    Blue  Ridge. 
-    Highlands,  from  N.  J.  to  Dutchess  Co.,  N.  Y.  (D.  16, 211.)    - 
Black  Mts.,  N.  C.        -     Black  Hills.  Wind  River  Mts.  (D. 

390.)  Colorado,  Medicine  Bow,  and  Park  Ranges.     (King  : 

40th  Par.,  i.,  5,  17-42 ;  Powell :    Uinta  Mts.,  26  ;    Marvine  :    Hayd. 
Rep.,  1873,  139.)  Core  of  the  Humboldt  Range.  (King,  id., 

12,  62.)  Sawatch  Range.  (Hayden :  Ann.  Rep.,  1873,  49-57, 

246.) 


—  51  — 

2.  End  of  Lower  Silurian.  -  Green  Mts.  in  part.  (D.  212-14,  305, 
355,389,390,392.)  --  Northeastern  U.  S.  (Rogers:  Geol.  Perm., 
ii.,  784.)  -  -  In  Europe.  (D.  217.) 

2.  End  of  Devonian  :— Catskill  Mts.  (D.  290.)  New  England, 

Eastern  Canada,  Nova  Scotia.  (D.  289,  390 ) 

4.  End  of  Carboniferous  : — Alleghanies.         -    Western  portion  of 
Great  Basin,  or  present  Nevada  Plateau,  with  submergence  of 
older  Nevadan  land  on  the  west.  (King:  40th  Par.,  L,  731-2,  748.) 

-    First  displacements  in  Rocky  Mts.  (Stevenson,  Wheeler  Rep., 
Hi.,  499-500.) 

5.  Between  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous : — Trap  mountains  and  ridges 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  N.  Carolina.  (D.  417,  486.)      —      Second 
movement  in   the  Rocky  Mts.     (Stevenson,   Wheeler  Rep.,  Hi., 
500.) 

6.  End  of  Jurassic: — Sierra  Nevada,  and  Basin  Ranges  to  the  east. 
(D.  452,  486;  Whitney:  Geol.  Cal;  King:  40th  Par.,   i.,  734-54, 
759.)    -  -    Blue  Mountains,  Oreg.  (King.)    —    Humboldt  Range. 
(D  453,  486.) 

7.  End  of  Cretaceous  (i.  e.  in  the  West,  post-Lignitic) :— California 
west  of  Sierra  Nevada.  (D.  523;  King:  40th Par.,  i.)     -        Wah- 
satch  Range.    (King :  40th  Par.,  i.,  745,  747,  753.     Not  D.  453,  486  ; 
Comstock,  N.  W.  Wyom.,  154.)  Part  of  Rocky  Mts.  east  of 
Wahsatch.  (D.  523  ;  King :  40th  Par.,  i.,  748  ;  Stevenson,  Wheeler 
Rep.,  Hi.,  500-1.)    -  -    Uinta  Range.  (King  :  40th  Par.,  i.,  540,  753; 
Powell :   Uinta  Mts.,  201 ;  Emmons,  King  Rep.,  Hi.,  198-202,  311-6; 
not  D.  453,  486.)    --    Cascade  Range.  (King.) 

8.  After  Lower^Eocene    (Vermillion  Creek  Group): — Formation  of 

Wahsatch  Fault,  with  subsidence  of  Central  Utah.  (King:  40th 
Par.,  745,  755.) 

9.  After  Middle  Eocene:— Cherokee  Ridge,  and  plications  in  West- 
ern  Nevada.    (King:  40th  Par.,  i.,  755.)  Pyrenees,  Julian 
Alps.  (Murchison :  Siluria,  499.)               Appenines,  Carpathians. 
(D.  512,  525.)    --    Southern  Himalayas.  (D.  512.) 

10.  End  of  Eocene : — Perhaps  Cordilleras  in  Wyoming  and  Utah, 
and  California.  (D.  523.)    --    Subsidence  along  the  East  Nevada 
fault.  (King:    40th  Par.,  i.,  744,  756.)  Corsican  chain.    (D. 
525.) 

11.  End  of  Miocene :— Coast  Range,  Cal.  (D.  523;  L.  256,  512;  Whit- 
ney :  Geol.  Cal.,  i.,  320,  seq.;  Le  Conte,  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  iv.  470,  vii. 
176.)  Rocky  Mts.  further  raised  to  11,000  ft.   (D.  524.) 
Subsidence  of   "Great  Plains"  and   formation  of  "Cheyenne 
Lake."  (King:  40th  Par.,  i.,  455;  Lect.  XVI.,  V.  3,  (3).)  —    Severe 
crumpling  in  region  of  Pah-Ute  Lake,  and  formation  of  "  Sho- 


—  52  — 

shone  Lake,"  stretching  from  Sierra  Nevada  to  Wahsatch,  and 
north,  far  up  Columbia  R.  (King :.  40th  Par.,  i.,  456.)  San 

Domingo.  (D.  524.)  -  -  Western  Alps,  including  Mont  Blanc, 
Monte  Rosa,  Rigi,  etc.  (D.  512, 525).  -  -  Antrim,  Inner  Hebrides 
and  Faroe  Is.  (D.  525.)  Older  eruptions  of  Auvergne  and 

Velay.  (D.  525  ;  Ly.:  Man.,  ch.  xxxii.;  Scrope:  Volcanoes  of  Cen- 
tral France.) 

12.  End  of  Pliocene :— Tilting  of  the  Great  Plains  to  a  maximum  of 
7,000  ft.  -  -  Depression  of  east  and  west  borders  of  Great  Basin 
Pliocene,  by  faulting  along  eastern  Sierra  Nevada  and  western 
Wahsatch.)  King:  40th  Par.,  i.,  758.)  Eastern  Alps,  from 

Valais  to  St.  Gotthard.  (D.  525.) 
II.  Inductive  Inferences. 

1.  The  loftiest  mountains  developed  in  later  geological  ages. 

2.  The  post-Carboniferous,   post- Jurassic  and    post-Cretaceous   the 

principal  building  times  of  the  modern  American  continent. 
(King:  40th  Par.,  i.,  759.)  • 

3.  Distinction  of  slow  and  paroxysmal  subsidences.  (King,  760.) 

4.  Distinction  of  gentle  and  dislocating  elevations.  (King,  760-1.) 

XXVI.  VULCANISM. 

•  On  Volcanic  Phenomena,  see  LYELL  :  Principles  of  Geology,  ch.  xxiii.-xxvi . ;  DK 
LABECHE:  Geological  Observer,  ch.  xvii.-xxi.;  RECLUS:  The  Earth,  ch.  Ixi.-lxxii.; 
ZURCHER  et  MARGOLLE:  Volcans  et  Tremblements  de  Terre,  Paris,  1866;  DAUBENEY: 
Description  of  Volcanoes;  NAUMANN  :  Geognesie.  i.,  76-189 :  HUMBOLDT:  Aspects  of  Na- 
ture, Am.  ed.,  375-99. 

On  Earthquake  Phenomena,  see  LYEU,  :  Principles,  ch.  xxvii. -xxxii. ;  DK  LA 
BECHE:  op.  cit.,  ch  xxii.:  RECLUS:  Earth,  ch.lxxiii.-lxxvisi.;  BAKEWELL:  Introduction 
to  Geology,  ch.  xlx. ;  ZI'RCHKR  et  MARGOLLE:  op.  cit..  251-94;  NAUMANN:  Geognosie. 
193-286;  L.  PALMIBRI  :  The  Eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  1872;  R.  MALLET:  The  Great  Nea- 
politan Earthquake  of  1857.  2  vols.,  8vo.,  1862,  Pt.  i. ;  General  Phenomena,  Pt.  ii.,  Phe- 
nomena of  the  Neapolitan  Earthquake ;  Facts  and  Theory  of  Earthquakes,  Reports 
Brit.  Assoc.,  1850-8.;  On  Observation  of  Earthquake  Phenomena,  Admiralty  Manual  of 
Scientific  Inquiry,  3d  ed..  1859.  Smithsonian  Ann.  Rep.,  1859,  408-33 ;  Earthquake-Tvave 
Experiments,  Phil.  Trans.,  1862,  vol.  cliii. ;  ALEXIS  PERRY,  Sundry  memoirs  on  the  earth- 
quake and  volcanic  phenomena  of  the  world,  presented  to  Academie  Royale  de  Belique. 
etc.,  1843-1867,  and  subsequent  years  in  ather  publications. 

On  volcanic  Rocks,  see  KING:  Geology  of  yotk  Parallel,  i.,  ch.  vi.:  ZIRKEL,  in 
Geology  of  qoth  Par.,  vi.,  (for  microscopic  characters);  PUMPELLY.  Geology  of  Mich.. 
1873,  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  on  copper-bearing  rocks ;  HUNT,  Genlogy  of  Canada,  1S63,  ch.  xx.,  pp. 
643-70;  RICHTHOPKN:  On  a  Natural  System  of  Volcanic  Rocks,  Mem.  Cal.  Acad.  Sci.. 
1868.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  4to. :  LYEU.  :  Manual  of  Geology,  ch.  xxviii.,  xxix. ;  DANA  :  Man.  of  Geol.. 
76-9,  and  System  of  Mineralogy;  also  general  works  on  Lithology,  as  cited  in  Lecture 
III. 

[Theoretical  considerations  are  postponed  to  Part  II.] 

Definition  and  explanation. 
I.  Volcanoes.  (D.  702-16 ;  L.  81 ;  Lyell,  Reclus,  etc.,  as  above.) 


—  53  — 

1.  General  description.     (See  above.) 

2.  Locations  contiguous  to  sea-coasts.  (D.  703;  L.  81-2;  Ly. :  Prin., 

332-40 ;  Reclus,  Earth,  426-32,  map ;  Hunt :  Chem.  and  Geol. 
Essays,  67-9.)  -  -  Rarely  far  inland.  (D.  704.) 

3.  Volcanic    action    perpetual    or   periodical.    (D.  714;  L.  81.) 

Through  craters.    (D.    711 ;  L.  82.)  Through   fissures.   (D. 

714.) 

4.  Ejections.— Explosions.  (D.  692;  L.  82;  Ly.:  Prin., 445.)    --    Mol- 

ten  matter.  (D.  707 ;  L.  83 ;  Reclus,  ch.   Ixvi.)  Volcanic 

bombs.  (D.  709.)  -  -  Ashes  and  stones.  (L.  83 ;  Reclus,  468,  471.) 
-  Mud  and  water.  (Ly. :  Prin.,  414  ;  Reclus,  475.)  -  Vapors 
and  gases.  (D.  708  ;  L.  85;  Re"clus,  433.)  —  Formation  of  Cone.  (D. 
704,  710,  715  ;  L.  81,  83,  186-9  ;  Ly. :  Prin.,  ch.  xxiv.-xxvii. ;  Man- 
nal,  489.) 

5.  Particular    examples: — (l.j    Vesuvius.    (D.  714;   L.  S8;  Ly.:    Prin.,  347-80; 

Reelus,  448 :  Zurcher  et  Margolle,  1-50.    —    Burial  of  cities.  (L.  83 ;  Ly.:  Prin., 

369-80;  Reclus,  470;  Pliny:  Letters:  Zurcher  et  Margolle,  1-10;  Dyer:  Pompeii, 

London,  1875,  and  the  works  cited,  pp.  5-9.) 

!2.)  ^Etna.  (Ly. :  Prin.,  ch.  xxvi ;  Reclus,  419-25 ;  469 :  Zurch.  et  Marg.,  51-65.) 
(3.)  Kilauea  and  MaunaLoa.  .(D.  708-16;  Reclus,  430,  460-2;  Zurch.  et  Marg.,  200-7  ; 

Brigham:   Volcanoes  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  1868;  Dana,  Am.  Jour.,  II.. 

xlvi  ,  105-23;  Coan.,  ib.  xlvii..  89;  III.,  ii.,  454 ;  III.,  iv.,  406-6. 
(4.x.  Jorullo.  (Ly. :  Prin.,  411-14  ;  Reclus,  443-4;  Zurch.  at  Marg.,  169-76.) 
(5.)  Skaptar  Jokul.  (L.  83:  Ly.:  Prin.,  409-11 :  Zurcher  et  Marg.,  80-4 j 
(6.)  Tomboro.  (L.  82,  83;    Herschel :    Phys.  Geol.,  Ill ;  Ly, :    Prin.,  45:  Reclus,  471 ; 

Zurch.  et  Marg.,  192-7. 

(7.)  Mt.  St.  Elias,  Shasta.  (Whitney:  Geol.  Cal.,  i.,  332-49.)    —    Rainier.  (L.  81.) 
(8.)  Extinct  Volcanoes.  (D.  525;  Newb.,  Ives.  Col.  Explor.,  65,72;    Ly. :  Man.,  ch. 

xxx.-xxxii. ;  Zurch.  et.  Marg.,  225-37,  249.) 

6.  American  Lavas  of  Post-Pliocene  age.  (D.  524,  753.)    --    Immense 

outflows  along  the  Pacific  slope.  --  Table  Mountain.  (Whit- 
ney: Geol.  Cal.)  —  Li thological  characters.  (King:  40th  Par., 
i.,  ch.  vii.,  and  Zirkel,  ib.,  vi.) 

7.  Comparison  of  Lavas  of  more  ancient  date.  (Ly.:  Man.,  486-7.) 

8.  Injections,  Intrusions   and   Outflows:— Veins.    (D,  108-14,  731;  L. 

226;  Ly.:  Man.,  567-72.)  -  -  Dikes.  (D.  715,  109,  111,  722;  L.  87, 
207;  Ly. :  Prin.,  363;  Ly. :  Man.,  483;  Hayden  :  Ann.  Rep.,  1872, 
37-9.)  -  -  Beds  of  igneous  origin.  (D.  717,  185,  418 ;  L.  259;  Gil- 
bert, Wheeler  Rep.,  iii.,  ch.  v.;  Stevenson,  ib.,  ch.  xiv.,  and  p.  501; 
Loew,  ib.,  ch.  xxiii. ;  Marvine,  Hayden  Rep.,  1873,129;  Peale, 
Hayd.  Rep.,  1873,  318-322;  Endlich,  ib.,  345,  etc. ;  Peale,  ib.,  163- 
74;  Endlich,  Hayd.  Rep.,  1874,  193-209;  Peale,  Hayd.  Rep.,  1875, 
ch.  vii.;  Endlich,  ib.,  127-36,  145-8,  212-15;  Rhoda,  ib.,  312;  Crit- 
tenden,  ib.,  364,  pi.  xliv. ;  Leconte,  Am.  Jour.,  Apr.,  1874;  Corn- 
stock,  N.  W.  Wyom.,  184.)  —  Basaltic  columns.  (D.  716,  722,  86, 


—  54  — 

87,  421 ;  L.  209-10  ;  Ly. :  Man.,  483-523  ;  Hayden  :  Ann.  Rep.,  1872, 
50.)  Metamorphism.  (D.  724-31.)  Mountain  Forms 

resulting  from   lava-outflows.  (Powell:   Uinta    Mts.,   18-21;  Ly.: 
Prin.,  ch.  xxiv-xxvii ;  Ly. :  Man.,  462, 489-518.) 

9.  Richthofen's  chronological   classification.     (See  General  Ref.)    - 
Propylite,  Andesite,  Trachyte,  Rhyolite,  Basalt.  (King;  4QthPar., 
i.,  ch.  vii.) 

II.  Fumaroles  or  Solfataras.    (D.  718,  708 ;  Ly. :  Prin.,  347  ;  Reclus, 

434,  478,  486-8.)  About  volcanic  mountains.  (D.  708.) 

On  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Naples.  At  New  Madrid. 

New  Zealand.  (Zurch.  et  Marg.,  208,  321.) 

III.  Thermal  Waters     (See  Lect.  II.,  IV.  2 ;  Reclus,  ch.  Ixx.) 

1.  Artesian  waters.  (Lect.  II.,  IV.  4.)    -  -    Temperatures. 

2.  Deep-mine  waters.  (Lect.  II.,  IV.  3.)    -  -    Temperatures. 

3.  Thermal  springs,  (i).  719  ;  Lect.  II.,  IV.;  Whitney  :  Geol.  Cal.,  93- 

5;  Gilbert,  Wheeler  Rep.,  iii.,  146-55;  Hague,  King  Rep.,  iii.,  704- 
7,  pi.  xxi.,  xxii.) 
(1.)  Their  common  occurrence.      -  -      In  volcanic  and  mountainous  regions.      - 

Temperatures.  (D.  719,  722.) 
(2.)  Geysers.  (L.  94;  Reclus,  482;  Zurcher  et  Marg.,  84-94.)      -  -      Phenomena.  (L. 

94.)    —    Explanation.  (D.  721 ;  L.  99-104.) 

(3.)  Thermal  waters  of  Yellowstone  National  Park.    (D.  719-21;    L.  94-9;   Hayden: 

Ann.  Ref.,  1871. 162-98;  fb.,  1872,  52-6;  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  iii.,  105,  161,  maps  and 

views;  Peale,  Hayden  Rep.,  1872,  122-158,  173-8;  Bradley,  ib..  234-50 ;  Jones: 

Explor.N.  W.  Wyom.,  1873,  24-32 ;  Comstock,  fb.,  189-259.) 

'  (a.)  Especially  described  and  illustrated  by  Dr.  Hayden.  (Reports  for  1871  and 

1872.    But  s>ee  Comstock,  ut  supra,  and  Am.  Nat..  Feb.  and  Mar.,  1874: 

Richardson :   Wonders  of  the  Yellowstone ;  Taylor  :  Illus.  Libr.,  Trav.  and 

Adventure.   1873;  Doane:    Yellowstone  Exped.,  1870,  especially  24-38  ;  also 

Reports  of  Superintendents  Langford  and  Norris.) 

(b.)  Remarkable  outbursts,  and  sintery  deposits.  (D.  719-21 ;  L.  95-9 ;  Jones :  N. 

W.  Wyom.,  25-32.) 

.  (c.)  Views.  (D.  719,  720 ;  L.  95-9  ;  Hayden :  Ref.,  1871,  66-127 ;  ib.,  1872,  54, 122-5 ; 

also  many  photographs  in  "  National  Museum,"  taken  by  W.  H.  Jackson.) 

(rf.)  In  Colorado.  (Peale,  Hayd.  Rep.,  1872,  102-3;  Marvine,  Hayd.  Rep.:  1873, 

205-6.) 

(e.)  Thermal  Springs  of  New  Zealand.  (Pop.  Sci.  Monthly,  July,  1879 ;  Reclus. 
483;  Hayden:  Ann  Report.,  1871, 128;  Hochstetter :  New  Zeal., 452;  Zurch. 
et  Marg.,  315-20.) 

IV.  Seismic  phenomena. 

1.  Earthquakes.  (D.  741,  585  ;  L.  104-26;  Ly.:  Prin.,  ch.  xxviii.-xxx.; 
Reclus,  ch.  Ixxiii.-lxxix.)  —  Destructive  occurrences.  (L.  120 ; 
Ly.:  Prin.,  441,  447,  471-3,  476,  485;  Reclus,  ch.  Ixxv. ;  Zurch.  et 
Margol.,  251,  et  seg. ;  Hamilton's  and  Dolomieu's  "Accounts  of 
the  Great  Calabrian  Earthquake."  Also,  South  American  earth- 
quakes as  described  by  Humboldt,  Fitzroy  and  Darwin  ;  and 
Javan,  by  Stamford  Raffles ;  also,  Mallet,  ut  supra,) 


—  55  — 

2.  Seismic  phenomena  in  the  United  States. 

(1.)  The  New  Madrid  Earthquake  of  1811.  (Ly.:  Prin.,  447-9;  Travis,  in  U.  S..  2d 
vis.,  ii.,  172-82.) 

(2.)  Frequent  slight  shocks  of  later  occurrence.  (Twining,  Am.  Jour.,  L,  47;  Brig- 
ham,  Mem.  Bos.  Soc.  N.  H.,  ii.,  i.,  227,  New  England  earthquakes;  A.  J.  S.,  i., 
304 ;  J.  D.  Whitney,  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  iv.,  316.) 

3.  Sea- waves.  (D.  662  ;  Lect.  II.,  II.,  3,  (4) ;  L.  119-22  ;  Rep.  U.  S.  Coast 

Sun.,  1855,  1862  and  1869;  Ly.:  Prin.,  478-84;  Zurch.  et  Marg., 
268,  281.)  In  South  America,  1868.  (Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xlvi., 

422-8.) 

(1.)  Caused  by  submarine  earthquakes. 

(2.)  Striking  examples:— Lisbon,  Simoda,  Arica.  (D.  662;  L.  120.) 
(3. ,  Measurement  of  mean  depth  of  ocean.  (D.  743 ;  L.  122;  Rep.  U.  S.  Coast  Surv., 
1862  and  1869;  Rankine,  Proc.  Roy.  Inst.  Gt.  B.,  26  May,  1871.) 

4.  Submarine  volcanoes  and  new  islands.  (D.  711 ;  Ly. :  Prin.,  415- 

33  ;  Reclus,  ch.  Ixxi. ;  Darwin  :  Volcanic  Islands;  Zurch.  et  Mar- 
gol.,  327-50;  Lect.  II.) 

5.  Slow   vertical  movements.    (Lect.   II.;  Darwin:   Geol.  Obseiv.  on 

Coral  Reefs,  etc.,  pt.  i.,  127-46 ;  pt.  ii.,  ch.  ii.  Also,  Humboldt : 
Aspects  of  Nature,  423— shells  13,790  ft. ;  Somerville :  Phys.  Geog., 
i.,  185 — shells  17,480  ft.— both  cases  in  the  Andes.) 

XXVII.   EROSIONS. 

I.  Atmospheric  Erosions.  (L.  3.) 

1.  By  Winds.    --    Sand  Blast.  (D.  632;  W.  Grand  Traverse  Region, 

13;  Comstock,  Jones'  N.  W.  Wyoming,  167-70;  W.  P.Blake,  Pacif. 
R.  R.  Rep.,  v.  108,  230,  232  ;  A.  J.  S.,  II.,  xx.,  180;  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  S., 
1855,  218;  Newberry,  Ives'  Exped.,  17,  24;  G.  K.  Gilbert,  Proc. 
A.  A.  A.  S.,  1874,  £  26.) 

2.  By  Frost.  (L.  8 ;  Comstock,  Jones'  N.  W.  Wyom.,  19-80.) 

3.  By   Atmospheric  disintegration.    (L.  6-8;    Pumpelly,  Am.  Jour., 

xviii.,  133;  Hayden  :  Rep.  Montana,  1871,  34,  39,  43,  61 ;  Rep.  Col., 
1874,  pi.  x.;  Lyell:  Travels  in  N.  Amer.,  2d.  Visit,  ii.,  27;  Whitta- 
ker,  Geol.  Mag.,  iv.,  447,  etc.) 

II.  Aqueous  Erosions.  (L.  ch.  ii.) 

1.  By  Rains.  (D.  637;  L.  9.) 

2.  By  Ice.  (See  Lectures  XVIII.  and  XIX.) 

3.  By  Waves   and  Oceanic  Currents.  (D.  657,  661,  663,665;  L.  31-6; 

Ag.:  Jour,  in  Brazil,  438.)  --  Receding  shores.  (D.  663;  L.  33; 
Ly.:  Prin.,  291-319.)  Rocky  islets.  (D.  663;  L.  35;  Ly.: 

Prin.,  287-90.)    --    Purgatories. 

4.  By  running  water.   (Ly. :  Prin.,  ch.  xiv.,  xv.)  Continental 

drainage. 


—  56  — 

(1.)  Producing  the  great  features  of  continental  sculpture.  (L.  245-50.) 
(2.)  Action  of  moving  waters.    (D.  638;  L.  11,  18-20;  Ly.:  Prfn.,  195.)    -    Corra- 
sion.    —    Relation  to  velocity.  (L.  18-20;  Ly.:  Pri».,l9r>.    —    Force  of  Alpine 
torrents,  i  Reclus  :  Earth,  284-93.) 

(3.)  Erosions  along  existing  river-  valleys.  (See  Lect.  XX.) 
(a.)  Ravines,  Gorges,  Canons.  (L.  15;  Ly.:  Prin.,  '202.) 
(b.)  The  Niagara.  (L.  12-13  ;  W.  243-5  ;  Hall  :  Geol.  IVth  Dist,  N.  Y.  ;  Ly.:  Prin., 

203-6;  Travels,  1st  visit;  Reclus,  Earth,  303.) 
(c.)  The  Mississippi.  (Ly.  :  Prin.,  215  ;  Reclus,  Earth,  304  ;    Humphreys  and 

Abbot:  Haudraulics  of  the  Miss.)    —      Upper  waters.      —    Lower  waters. 

(Ly.  :  Prin.,  211.)    —    Ancient  deeper  channel  and  wider  valley. 
(d.)  Kentucky.  (W.  344.)    —    Cumberland,  Illinois  and  others. 
(«.)  Green  and  Colorado  rivers.  (D.  640-3;  L.  Frontisp.,  16  7:  Newberry,  Ivcs  , 

Color.  Exped.  ;  W.  345-9  ;  Powell  :  Rep.  on  Col.  Riv.) 
(/.)  The  Amazons.  (Ag.:  Jour,  in  Brazil,  435;  Orton  :  Andes  and  Amazon.)' 
(4.)  Erosion  of  plateaux,  basins  and  plains. 

(a.)  Colorado  plateau.  (D.645;  L.  16;  W.  346,  348;  Ives:  Rep.  Col.  Exped.,®,, 

76,  80,  98-118;  Newb.,  Ives'  Rep.,  45,  54-64;  Wheeler:  Prelim.  Rep.,  1871,  23; 

Powell  :  Color.  Riv.  ;  Endlich,  Bui.  Hayd.  Surv.,  iv.,  831-64,  on  erosion  in 

Col.) 
(P.)  Bridger  Basin.  (King's  Rep.  tpth  Par.,  iii.,  238.      -  -      Bear  River  region. 

(King's  Rep.  <pth  Par.,  iii.,  326-39.) 
(c.)  Plains  of  Texas  and  New  Mexico.  (Kimball,  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  S.,  Salem,  174.) 

-    The  "Great  Plains."     —     The  Basin  of  Middle  Tennesee.    (W.  341-3; 

Safford  :  Geol.  Tenn.,  134-5,  and  map.) 
(d.)  Bridges  and  Arches.  (W.  248,  31,  89,  91  ;  Endlich,  Hayd.  Rep.,  1875,  158,  pi. 

xx.;  Reclus:  Earth,  240.) 

(<.)  Circumdenudation.  (D.  648.)     --     Columns,  Pyramids,  Mesas.  (D.   641  ;  L. 
16;  W.  247  ;  Ly.:  Elem.,  78,  268,  70,  556;  King:  Geol.  apth  Par.,  i.,96,  Frontis- 

piece, 396-401  ;  Endlich,  Hayd.  Ann.  Rep.,  1874,  195,  207  ;  Ives:  Col.  Exped., 

76,64;  Newb.,  Ives'  Col.  Exped.,  20,30,  76-91;  En  dlich,  Hayd.  Ann.  Rep., 

1875,  156-8,  plates  xix.,  xx.  ;  Holmes,  ib.,  256,  pi.  xli.,  xlii.,  268-72,  pi.  xliv., 

xlv.  ;  Forsyth,  Yellowstone  Exped.,  1875,  8-—"  Castle  Rocks."     —    •'  Garden 

of  the  gods."  (Peale,  Hayd.  Ann.  Rep.,  1872,  100;  1873,  36;  Marvine,  Hayd. 

Ann.  Rep.,  1873,  265  :  Hayden  :  Ann.  Rep.,  1874,  pi.  viii.,  ix.)    —    •'  Monu- 

ment Park."  (D.  646  ;  Hayden  :  Ann.  Rep.,  1873,  32  ;  ib.,  1874,  36,  40,  and  pi. 

iii.,  iv.)    —    Compare  needles,  columns  and  tables  on  glacier  surfaces. 

(Reclus:  Earth,  193;  Tyndall  :   Glaciers  of  the  Alps,  Hours  of  Exercise  in 

the  Alps;  Lect.  XVIII.,  V.) 
(/.)  "Bad  Lands."    (L.  247-8;  W.  205,  206,  296;  Owen:  Geol.  North-west,  196-9  ; 

Hayden:  Rep.  Wyom.,  1870,  145-6;  King:  Geol.  jflth   -Par.,  i.,  Frontisp.,  9, 

396-401.) 

oreign  examples.  (Ly.  :  Elem.,  67-78;  ch.  xix.) 


(6.)  Erosion  of  mountains.  (See  Lecture  XXIV.,  II.) 

(6.)  Underground  erosions.    (D.6/S3-4;  L.  68,  70;  Reclus:  Earth,  245-60;  Comstock, 
Jones'  N.  W.  Wyom.,  181-2.) 

III.  Avalanches,  mountain-  downfalls  and  landslips.  (Re"clus: 
Earth,  ch.  xxvii.  ;  Payot:  Guide  itineraire  au  Mont  Blanc;  Bake- 
well  :  Geol.,  385  ;  Ly.  :  Prin.,  708  ;  D.  655.)  Lowering  of 

Mountains.  (Orton,  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  ii.,  267.) 


—  57  — 
XXVIH.  THE  OLD  AGE  OF  CONTINENTS. 

I.  The  Mass  of  the  Sedimentary  Bocks  a  measure  of  past 

denudations.  (L.  263.) 

1.  Origin  of  marine  sediments. 

2.  Nearly  all  the  known  rocks  of  sedimentary  origin.    —    Where 

were  the  lands  worn  down  to  supply  the  material  ? 

3.  Their  direction  indicated  by  gradations  in  the  coarseness  of  the 

sediments.  (D.  373.)  --  Appalachian  materials  and  their  north- 
eastern origin.  (D.  251 ;  Hall:  Pal.  N.  Y.,  iii.,  Introduc.)  — 
The  Potsdam  Sandstone  a  shale  in  Alabama. 

II.  The  Archaean  Lands  of  North  America. 

1.  Archaean  sediments  imply  shore-erosions. 

2.  The  old  Archaean  surface  extensively  eroded   before  Cambrian 

time.  (King:  Geol.  4Qth  Par.,  i.) 

3.  These  lands  themselves  formerly   more  extensive.    —    Eroded 

during  Palaeozoic  time. 

4.  Their  substance  built  into  Palaeozoic  and  later  formations. 

II.  The  old  Caribbean  Continent.  (Bland,  P.  A.  P.  S.,  xii.,  56,  etc.  ; 
Cope,  P.  A.  N.  S.,  1868 ;  P.  T.  Cleve,  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  iv.  235.) 

1.  Its  surviving  relics. 

2.  Involved  small  areas  in  South  America. 

3.  Tradition   of  a  cataclysm  in  the  Antilles.    (Foster :    Prehistoric 

Races,  U.  S.,  396-9 ;  Catlin :  The  Lifted  and  Subsided  Rocjcs  of 
America,  Lond.,  1870.) 

IV.  The  Lemurian  Continent. 

1.  The  Mascarene  islands.  (Milne-Edwards,  \Comptes  Rendus,  15  Apr., 

1872,  1030-4;  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  iv.,  72 ;  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  iv., 
138.) 

2.  Evidences  of  former  extension  to  Java. 

V.  A  Supposed  Polynesian  Continent.  (D.  583;  Leidy:  Ext.  Mam. 

of  Dak.  and  Neb.,  1869,  36,  356 ;  Huxley,  Anniversary  Add.,  Lond. 
Geol.  Soc.,  1870 ;  Cope,  P.  A.  P.  S.,  1871,  55,  99,  and  P.  A.  N.  S., 
1867, 156.) 

VI.  The  wasted  Aleutian  Connection.  (L.  535 ;  W.  25.    See  under 

last  head.) 

VII.  The  "fabled"  Atlantis. 

1.  Historical  reminiscences.  (Plato:  Timseus  and  Oritias,.  Jowett's 
trans.,  ii.,  462,  519-21,  588,  599-607 ;  Theopompus,  auc.  Aristotle, 
in  Plutarch:  Consolatio  ad  Apollonium,  \  27;  Compare  Preller: 
Griechische  Mythol,  i.,  453 ;  Timagenes,  auc.  Amm.  Marcellinus,  in 
Miiller's  Fragmenta  Histor.  Orsec..  iii.,  323;  Marcellus,  in  Miiller, 
op.  cit.,  iv.,  443.) 
E 


—  58  — 

2.  The  old  stump  of  Atlantis  perhaps  discovered.  (Wild,  in  Nature, 
March  1, 1877,  377.  Compare  Thomson :  Voyage  of  the  Challenger. 
The  Atlantic,  i.,  Ch.  ii.,  App.  B.,  p.  93.)  Grounds  for  sup- 

posing a  "Miocene  Atlantis."  (Heer:  Flora  Tertiaria  Helvetica, 
1855-9;  Saporta,  Annales  des  Sci.  Natur.,  1862,  and  Le  Monde  des 
Plantes,  1878 ;  Newberry,  Hayden's  Explor.  Yellowstone  and  Mis- 
souri Riv.,  1859-60,  173-4 ;  Ch.  Martins,  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
1867  ;  Cleve,  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  iv.,  235.  See  also  the  palseontological 
generalizations  of  Moore,  Duncan,  Sowerby,  Guppy,  Leidy, 
Marsh  and  Cope.) 

VIII.  Wastage  of  visible  areas.    (D.  637-47,  663-4 ;  L.  245-51 ;  W. 
ch.  xxxi.    See  also  Lectures  XXVII.  and  XXIV.) 

1.  The  Alleghanies.  (D.  647  ;  L.  263 ;  W.  339-40.) 

2.  The  Catskills. 

3.  Faulting  and  Denudation  in  Wyoming  Territory.  (Powell :   Uinta 

Mts. ;  L.  263.) 

4.  The  gold-bearing  gulches  of  California.  (L.  554-7.) 

5.  Sundry  other  examples.  (D.  647  ;  L.  15 ;  E.  Hitchcock  :  Geol.  Vt., 

i.,  226;  Gilbert:  Geol.  of  Henry  Mts.} 

IX.  Bate  of  Continental  Erosion. 

1.  Croll's  estimate,  1  ft.  in  6,000  yrs.  (Phil.  Mag.,  May,  1868,  378-84; 

Feb.,  1867,  p.  1830;  Climate  and  Time,  ch.  xx. ;  Trans.  Geol.  Soc., 
Glasgow,  iii.,  153.) 

2.  Heade's  estimate,  500,000,000  yrs.  since  sedimentation  began  in 

Europe.  (Annual  Add.,  Liverpool  Geol.  Soc.;  Am.  Jour.,  1876,  462.) 

3.  Geikie's  estimate,  1  ft.  in  6,000  yrs.    (Proc.  Roy.  Geogr.  Soc.;  Pop. 

Sci.  Monthly,  Sep.,  1879,  598.) 

4.  These  estimates  apparently  too  low.        -    Erosion  by  the  Ganges, 

1  ft.  in  1751  yrs.,  and  by  the  Mississippi,  1  ft.  in  4,640  years.  (L. 
10-11.) 

XXIX.  GEOLOGY  OF  PETROLEUM. 

WINCHELL:  Sketches  of  Creation,  ch.  xxv.;  Dana:   System  of  Mineralogy,  724-5. 

I.  Chemical  Constitution  of  Crude  Petroleum.    (Warren  :  Mem. 

Amer.  Acad.,  II.,  ix.,  x. ;  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  II.,  xl.,  xlv.,  xlvi.) 
J.  Series  of  Hydrocarbons.  (D.  Syst.  Min.,  720-2;  Crosby,  Am.  Nat., 

Apr.,  1879,  231.)     •-    Table.    --    Differential  between  cellulose 

and  Petroleum.  (L.  379.) 
2.  Compounds  more  and  less  volatile.  (L.  380  ;  W.  280.) 

II.  Organic  Origin  of  Petroleum.  (L.  379.) 
1.  Its  organic  constitution  chemically. 


—  59  — 

2.  Its  producibility  from  organic  substances  and  black  shales.  (D. 

268;  W.  281.) 

3.  Its  natural  association  with  organic  dZbris. 

4.  The  origin  chiefly  vegetable.  Indications.     -        The  hypo- 

thesis of  animal  origin.  (Hunt:  Chem.  and  Geol.  Ess.,  168-82;  A. 
.1.  S.,  III.,  i.,  420-4,  on  Chicago  limestone ;  A.  J.  S.,  ii.,  369 ;  Geol. 
Canada,  526-8  ;  A.  J.  Warner,  A.  J.  S.,  ii.,  215.)  A  contro- 

versy. 

in.  Its  Vertical  Distribution  in  the  rocks.  (L.  376-7 ;  W.  280-1.) 
-    In  gneiss  and  mica  schist.  (Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xlv.,  38.) 

IV.  Laws  of  Accumulation.  (L.  377;  W.  287.) 

7s!.  A  source  situated  l>dow  the  place  of  accumulation. 

(1.)  In  every  actual  instance  we  find  a  bituminous  shale.    (W.  282,  288 ;  Warner,  A. 

J.  S.,  ii.,  215.) 

(2.)  Limestones  not  an  abundant  source.  (W.  277-8 ;  Hunt,  Geol.  Can.,  521-6.) 
(3.)  Argillaceous  mixtures  predispose  to  liberation  of  petroleum. 

2.  An  anticlinal  axis  required  to  direct  the  movement  of  the  libera- 

ted product. 

3.  A  reservoir  to  retain  the  supply.  (W.  287.)    -  -    Porous  sandstone. 

(W.  293.)  -  Shattered  rock.  (W.  292.)  -  -  Cavernous  lime- 
stone. (W.  292.) 

4.  An  impervious  covering  to  prevent  escape.     (W.  282,  287.) 

V.  Forms  of  Inspissated  Petrolenm.     (D.  Man.  Min.,  95 ;  Peckham, 

Ann.  Jour.,  II.,  xlviii.,  362,  and  other  references  there;  Hunt, 
Geol.  Can.,  521-6. 

1.  Asphalt.    (D.  Syst.  Min.,  751.)   —  ^Ibertite.  (D.  296,  315  ;  Wether- 

ill,  Trans.,  A.  P.  S.,  1852,  353  ;  Hitchcock,  Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xxxix, 
267.)    Found  in  Green  River  Eocene  and  elsewhere.     (Hayden  : 
Ann.  Rep.,  1870, 144, 181.)     — A  Grahamite.  (D.  315:  L.  380  ;  Les- 
ley, Proc..  A.  P.  S.,  ix.,  183  ;  Wurtz,  Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xlii.,  420 
Piauzite.  (D.  Syst.  Min.,  753.)  Berengelite.  (D.  Syst.  Min., 

753.) 

2.  Pitch-lakes.  (On  Trinidad,  Crosby,  Am.  Nat.,  Apr.,  1879,  239  seq.  ; 

Wall,  Proc.  Geol.  Soe..,  Lond.,  May  1860.)  "Gum-beds."  (W. 

291-2:  Dana:  Syst.  Min.,  727;  Crowther,  Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xlvi.,  147, 
in  Mexico.) 

VI.  Common  Fallacies. 

1.  That  Petroleum  comes  from  coal.  (W.  276,  280.) 

2.  That  a  strong  surface  show  is  favorable.  (W.  276.) 

3.  That  a  saturated  rock  insures  a  supply.  (W.  277,  278-80.) 

4.  That  geological  and  hydrostatical  principles  can  be  disregarded. 

(W.  275.)  Formations  explored  in  vain.  Unproduc- 

tiveness of  the  Corniferous  and  Niagara  limestones.  (D.  222, 256; 


—  60  — 

W.  278-80,  289-91 ;  Hunt :  Chem.  and  Oeol  Essays,  168-82 ;  Warner, 
A.  J.  S.,  ii.,  215.)  Surface  shows  tempting  to  mislead.  (W. 

276,  278.) 

VII.  Formations  yielding  paying  quantities :  Cincinnati 

Group.  (W.  289,  292.)        -    Hamilton  Group.  (W,  289,  292.) 
Genesee  Shale.  (W.  288,  293.)  Chemung  Group.  (W.  293.) 

-    Marshall  (Waverly)  Group.  (W.  293.)  Carboniferous 

Limestone.  (W.  293.)    -  -    Parma  Conglomerate.  (W.  293.) 
Coal  Measures.  (W.  293.)  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  rocks. 

(B.  S.  Lyman,  Trans.  Am.  P.  S.,  xv.,  1,  Punjab;  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  iii., 
392  ;  Report  of  Colonial  Geologists,  London,  1860, 134,  seq.;  Schom- 
burgh :  Hist,  of  Barbadoes,  553,  569 ;  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  iii.,  481,  Santo 
Domingo.) 

Vm.  Phenomena  of  Oil-Wells.  (W.  284.) 

1.  Pumping  wells.  (W.  285,  284.)  Spouting  wells.  (L.  377  ;  W. 

284.)  --  Intermittent  wells.  (VV.285.)  --  Flowing  wells.  (W. 
285.)  -  -  Water  wells.  Gas  wells.  (W.  283 ;  Rep.  on  well 

in  Knox  Co.,  O.;  Wurtz,  Am.  Jour.,  II.,  xlix.,  336;  Newberry, 
Am.  Chemist,  Dec.,  1870 ;  A.  J.  S.,  i.,  146) 

2.  Productiveness  of  oil-wells.  (W.  286,  Appendix,  Note  VIII.) 
IX.  Exhaustion  and  Recuperation  of  "Wells. 

XXX.  GEOLOGY  OF  SALT  AND  GYPSUM. 

C.  A  GOESSMAN  :  Chemistry  of  Common  Salt,  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  II.,  xlix.,  78-89. 

I.  Primordial  Origin  of  the  Saltness  of  the  Sea. 

1.  Early  chemical  reactions.  (W.  59-64;  Hunt:  Essays, 2d  paper.)    - 

Table.  (W.  61.) 

2.  Why  we  associate  salt  and  gypsum. 

II.  Origin  of  Salt  Lakes.  (Compare  L.  74 ;  Darwin :  Geol.  Obs.,  pi.  ii., 

75.) 

1.  Sometimes  solutions  of  contiguous  salt   deposits.   (W.  295;   D., 

630 ;  L.  73.) 

2.  Generally  residua  of  bodies  of  sea-water.  (L.  73.)    -  -    Conditions 

of  their  perpetuity.  --  Shrinkage  of  most  salt  lakes.  (W.  295  ; 
L.  75.)  -  -  Dead  Sea.  (Not  as  in  L.  73.)  Great  Salt  Lake. 

(D.  561 :  L.  75.)    -        Disappearance  of  salt  lakes.  (W.  295 ;  Lect. 
XX.,  IV.,  2.)    -  -    By  drainage  they  may  become  fresh.  (D.  23.) 
HI.  Salt  Lakes  of  Former  Ages 

1.  Isolation  and  evaporation.  (W.  297 ;  D.  235,  696 ;  Hunt :  Essays, 
104.)  --  Occasional  accession  of  sea-water.  (D.  236.)  --  Mix- 
ture of  earthy  sediments.  (D.  235 ;  L.  75.) 


—  61  — 

2.  Order  of  deposition  as  evaporation  proceeds.  (W.  297,  302 ;  L.  75.) 

-    The  Salina  basin.    —    Same  order  in  artificial  evaporation. 

3.  Why  gypsum  always  accompanies  salt  Error  of  supposing 

them  naturally  in  separated  formations    --    Gypsum  not  a  sec- 
ondary product.  (W.  297;  Compare  D.  234,  235;  L.  75.) 

4.  The  salt  sometimes  reduced  again  to  brine.    —    Salt  springs. 

5.  Thus   salt  formations  proceed  from  evaporation  of  ancient  out- 

liers of  the  ocean.  (W.  296 ;  D.  235  ,  Compare  R6clus :  Earth,  402, 
seq.) 

IV.  Conditions  of  Brine  Accumulation. 

1.  A  source  located  above.  (W.  300-1.) 

2.  A  dish-shaped  conformation.  (W.  298.)    -  -    Effect  of  a  persistent 

dip.  (W.  298.) 

3.  Remoteness  from  outcropping  border  of  the  basin.  (W.  299.)       — 

Salt  springs  generally  marginal.  (W.  299.)     —     Do  not  indicate 
localities  where  strong  supplies  may  be  sought.  (W.  299.) 

4.  A  good  brine-well  must  be  a  pumping,  not  a  flowing,  well.  (W. 

299-300.) 

V.  Principal  Salt-Formations  of  the   eastern  United  States. 

1.  The  Salina  Formation.  (W.   303.)  Its   distribution. 

Source  of  the  supplies  in  Onondaga  county,  N.  Y.  (W.  303.) 
Geological  structure.  (W.  303.)      —     Affords  rock-salt  in  sundry 
localities.        -     Goderich,  Ont.  (W.  304  ;  D.  234.)  Alpena 

and  Mackinac,  Mich.  Hope  of  reaching  it  by  boring  in 

New  York.    -  -    Abingdon,  Va. 

2.  The  Michigan  Salt  Group.  (W.  304  ;  D.  295,  377.)      —      Its  restric- 

tion to  Mich,  and  perhaps  Nova  Scotia.  Its  reservoir  the 

Marshall  sandstone.  (W.  304.)     -  -    Productiveness. 

3.  The  Coal  Measures.  (W.  305.)     -        Especially  in  Mich.  (W.  305  ; 

Geol.  Mich.,  165-93.)  The  reservoir  in  the  Conglomerate. 

(W.  305.)    -  -    Hence  Michigan  is  underlaid  by  three  concentric 
salt-basins.  General  salinity  of  Michigan  strata,  and  the 

cause.    -  -    Mineral  wells  of  the  state. 

4.  Other  salt  and  brine  deposits  in  the  U.  S.  The  Cretaceous. 

(W.  306.)  Petite  Anse,  La.  (W.  306 ;  Hilgard,  Am.  Jour., 

Jan.  1869,  xlvii.,  77  ;  Goessman,  Am.  Bur.  Mines,  1867.) 

5.  European  Salt  Beds  mostly  Triassic.  (D.  424.) 

XXXI.  METHOD  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  LIFE. 

I.  The  Conception  of  Progress.  (D.  593-7.) 

1.  Retrospect  of  organic  succession. 

2.  The  progress  fluctuating,  but  real.  (D.  598.) 


3.  Expansion  of  types  mostly  upward,  but  partly  downward.  (D.  598.) 

4.  Other  possible  orders  of  organic  succession. 
(1.)  Unchangeability. 

(2.)  Regression  from  primitive  perfection. 

(3.)  Progress  by  a  succession  of  unrelated  plans  (Discontinuous.) 

IL  Persistence  and  Pervasiveness  of  Organic  Types. 

1.  Fundamental  Identity  in  Differentiated  structures. 
,     (1.)  Fundamental  plans  of  organic  structure.  (D.  594.) 

(2.)  Exemplification  from  the  Vertebrate  type. 

•(a.)  Generalized  conception  of  the  Vertebrate.  (Hux.,  25;  Flower:  Osteal,  of 

Mam.  104-5  '  Owen  :   The  Skeleton  and  the  Teeth,  26-34.) 
(b.)  Homologies  of  parts.    —    Limbs.     —    Jaws. 

(c.)  Persistence  of  the  vertebrate  conception.    —    Pervasiveness  in  diversified 
modifications. 

2.  Progressive  differentiation  of  structures  fundamentally  indenti- 

cal.  (D.  595.)    --    Progressive  cephalization.  (D.  596.) 

3.  The  rate  of  this  progress  different  along  different  lines  of  affili- 

ation. 

(1.)  Explanation. 

(2.)  Hence,  different  stages  of  differentiation  become  contemporaneous. 
(3.)  Types  representative  of  earlier  times,  handed  down  to  later.  (D.  594.) 

(a.)  The  general  type  of  Eozoon  existed  in  all  subsequent  ages. 

(b.)  All  forms  comparatively  lower  the  representatives  of  earlier  ages. 

III.  Apparent  Breaches  of  the  Law  of  Progress. 

1.  Persistent  Forms.  (Hux.:    Critiques  and  Addresses,  186;  Lay  Ser- 

mons, 216-27.) 

(1.  Globigerinse.  (Hux.:  Lay  Serm.,  198;  Carpenter,  A.  J.  S.,  II ,  xlix.,  415.) 

Crinoids.  (Sars,  A.  J.  S.,  II.,  xlvlii.,  142;  xlix.,  130;  Loven,  A.  J.  S.,  II., 
xlviii.,  429;  Pouriales,  Bui.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool..  Cambr.,  No.  11 ;  Proc,  Roy.  Soc., 
xvii.,  168  and  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  iii.,  383  and  iv.,  112;  W.  B.  Car- 
penter, Phil.  Trans.,  1866,  vol.,  clvi.)  —  Lingulidse.  (D.  594.)  —  Discinidse 
-  Rhynchonella.  —  Terebratulina  caput-serpentis.  (Hux. ;  Lay  Serm.,  198.) 
—  Atrypa  reticularis.  —  Strophomena  rhomboidalis.  —  Nautilus. 
Belemnoteuthis.  Ceratodus.  (D.  594  ;  Krefft,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1870,  221 ; 

Giinther,  Ann.  Mag.  N.  H.,  IV.,  vii.,  222  ;  A.  J.  S.  III.,  387 ;  Archiv,  f.  Natur- 
gesch.,  37  Jahrg.,  1871,  Bd.,  i.,  321,  etc. ;  Haeckel :  Anthropogenie,  439,  442,  588, 
715.)  —  Pleur acanthus.  —  Highest  Lacertilians. 

(2.)  All  the  (20)  classes  and  75  out  of  92  fossilizable  orders  have  persisted  to  the 
present. 

2.  Regressive  Forms. 
(1).  Among  extinct  species. 

(a.)  From  Cambrian  Paradoxides  to  lowest  Articulates,  and  to  Molluscs,  Radi- 
ates and  Protozoans  (if  we  ignore  Eozoon.) 

(b.)  From  Cambrian  Tetrabranchiates  to  lower  orders  of  Molluscs  and  other 
animals. 

(c.)  From  Triassic  Mammals  to  Jurassic  Dinosaurs  and  Birds. 
{2.)  Among  living  species. 

(a.)  Proteids  lower  than  earliest  Amphibians. 

(b.)  Pharyngobranchs  and  Marsipobranchs  lower  than  earliest  Fishes. 


—  63  — 
XXXII.  METHOD  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  LIFE.     (Continued.) 

I.  The  resolution  of  Organic  Types.  (D.  597.) 

1.  Resolution  discriminated  from  Differentiation. 

2.  Every  type  the  potential  or  stock  of  a  series  of  differentiations, 

and  also  of  resolutions. 

3.  Unresolved  types  generally  prophetic. 
(1.)  Sauroid  Fishes  prophetic  of  Reptiles. 

(2.)  Ornithoscelid  Reptiles  prophetic  of  Birds. 

(3.)  Ichthyosaurian  Reptiles  prophetic  of  Cetaceans . 

(4.)  The  unresolved  Amblypoda  prophetic  of  modern  orders  of  Mammals. 

4.  Unresolved  types  often  retrospective. 

(1.)  Labyrinthodonts  and  atnphicoalian  Reptiles  retrospective  toward  Fishes. 
(2.)  Birds  with  teeth  and  vertebrated  tails  retrospective  toward  Reptiles. 
(3.)  Zeuglodonts  and  Cetaceans  retrospective  toward  Ichthyosaurs. 

5.  When  a  higher  differential  is  unresolved,  the  type  is  prophetic  ; 

when  a  lower,  it  is  retrospective. 

II.  Successive  Dominance  of  Organic  Conceptions.  (D.  597.) 

1.  Represented  by  highly  differentiated  types  which  continue  unre- 

solved. As  the  Reptilian  Type  of  Mesozoic  Time.        — 

Hence,  it  becomes  dominant  by  manifestation  under  many  modi- 
fications and  in  many  individuals. 

2.  Examples : 

(1.)  Rhizopods  in  the  Eozoic. 

(2.)  Nautiloids  in  the  Silurian. 

(3.)  Crinoids  in  the  Earlier  Carboniferous. 

(4.)  Ammonites  and  Reptiles  in  the  Mesozoic. 

(5.)  Mammals  in  the  Tertiary.    —    Sthenorhiiies  amongst  early  mammals. 

(6.)  Acrogens  during  the  Coal  Period . 

III.  Dominant  Types  Decline  without  Disappearing. 

1.  Foraminifera.    --    Nautilidse.    --    Crinoids.    --    Terebratulidse. 

-  Ganoids.    —     Crocodilians.    -  -     Cycads.    -       Tree  Ferns. 

-  Salisburioids,  etc., 

2.  This  results  from  arrest  of  differentiation  and  resolution. 

IV.  The  Progress  Ideally  Continuous. 

1.  The  same  general  plans  of  structure  reproduced  in  successive  ages 

and  different  orders. 

2.  This  not  a  demonstration  of  material  continuity. 

3.  But  all  the  phenomena  explicable  on  the  hypothesis  of  a  material 

or  genetic  continuity. 

XXXIII.  UNRESOLVED  MAMMALIAN  TYPES. 

References  are  abbreviated  as  explained  under  Lecture  XVII. 
Some  prominent  examples  of  Unresolved  types  more  particularly 
considered. 


—  64  — 

I.  No  Modern  Mammalian  Order  definitely  Isolated  in  the 

beginning  of  Tertiary  time.  (C.  III.,  644.) 

1.  Specifications  of  primitive  ordinal  types. 

2.  Affinities  with  modern   Perissodactyla,   Proboscidians,  Rodents 

and  Plantigrade  Carnivores. 

II.  Common  characteristics  of  oldest  Eocene  Mammals. 

1.  Lack  of  differentiation  among  the  teeth. 

2.  The  selenodont  type  of  teeth  entirely  wanting. 

3.  All  the  ungulates  had  upper  and  lower  incisors. 

4.  These  early  mammals  mostly  5-toed  and  plantigrade. 

5.  Brains  small  and  imperfectly  convoluted.  (Mh.  viii.,  July,  1874.) 

III.  The  type  designated  AMBLYPODA  by  Oope.  (C.  VIII.,  178, 182, 

273,  282.) 

1.  General  characters.     -        Unites  Proboscidea  and  Perissodactyla. 

2.  Coryphodon.  Connects  most  generalized  Herbivores  with 

most  generalized  Carnivores.  (L.  502.)  -  -  Possessing  affinities 
with  Perissodactyls,  Proboscidians,  Carnivores  and  Dinocerata. 
(C.  VIII.,  187.) 

3.  IKnoceras.    —    Description.    --    Combined  characters  suggestive 

of  Rhinocerus,  Ruminants,  Equidse,  Hippopotamus  and  Mastodon. 

4.  Uintatherium    (?— ZHnoceras)  united   characters  of  Proboscidians, 

Tapirs  and  especially  Dinoceras.  (L.  III.,  93  seq.) 

5.  Orohippus  C?=Hyracothgrium)  has  connections  with  Palseotherium, 

Palaeosyops,  Anchitherium  and  Horse.  (C.  VIII.,  260.) 

IV.  The  type  designated  BUNOTHERIA  by  Oope  (C.  VIII.,  72,  85,)— 

has  affinities  ranging  from  the  gy rencephalous  orders  to  the 
Prosimise,  Quadrumana  and  Carnivora. 

1.  Creodonts :— Resemble  Sarcophagous  Marsupials,  Dogs,  Insectiv- 

ora,  Lemurs,  and,  in  the  tibia,  Coryphodon  -  -  Differ  from  Car- 
nivores in  ungrooved  upper  surface  of  astragalus,  and  want  of 
coossification  of  scaphoid  and  lunar  bones.  (C.  VIII.,  76,  78.)  — 
Differ  in  certain  points  from  all  other  orders.  (C.  VIII.,  79.) 

2.  Mesodonts,  intermediate  between  Creodonts  and  Lemurs.        — 

Possess  affinities  with  Simise,  Insectivora  and  Ungulates. 

3.  Tillodonts :— Tillotherium.  (L.  503-4.)     -         Description    --    Com- 

bined characters  of  Bear,  Rodents,  Ungulates  (Palseotherium), 
and  Insectivores  (Hedgehog.) 

4.  Tseniodonts  : — Inferior  incisors  like   Rodents  ;  upper,  suggestive 

of  Edentates  ;  molars,  like  Tillodonts. 

V.  The   type   designated  Brontotheridae  by  Marsh.  (Mh.  ix., 

245;  xi.,  335.) 
1.  Brontotherium  .-—Description,  (L.  505.)  Was  an  odd-toed 


—  65  — 

Ungulate,  but  resembled  Dinoceras,  Tapir  and  Proboscidians. 
(Mh.  xi.,  339.) 

2.  Menodus=  Titanotherium,  related  to  Tapir,  Palseothere,  and  Dinoceras. 

(D.  506-7.) 

VI.  The  type  of  Rhinoceridse.  (C.  ix.,  227.)    --    Presents  affini- 
ties with  Hyracodon,  Tapirulus,  Lophiodonts  and  Tapirs ;  and 
indeed  with  Palseotherium  and  the  Brontotheridse. 
VI.  Sundry  types. 

1.  Oreodon  united  characters  of   Anoplotherium,  Deer,   Peccary  and 
Camel. 

'2.  Meniscotherium  united  characters  of  Palseosyops,  Hyopotamus  and 
Hyracotherium  (?  Orohippus.)  (C.  V.,  8  ;  VIII.,  251.) 

3.  Eocene  Diplacodon  united  characters  of  Limnohyus  and  Miocene 

Brontotherium.  (Mh.  ix.,  246  ;  xi.,  339.) 

•1.  Hypertragulus  was  intermediate  between  Tragulidse  and  typical 
Ruminants.    (C.  X.,  66.) 

5.  Orotherium  united  Tapiroids  and  Hyracotherium. 

6.  Dinotherium    (Miocene) — earliest  of  Proboscidioid   types,  united 

characters  of  Elephant,  Hippopotamus,  Tapir,  Dugong  and  (in 
marsupial  bones)  Marsupials.  (Am.  Jout.,  II.,  xxxviii.,  427.) 

7.  Stegosauria  possessed  affinities  with   Dinosaurs,  Plesiosaurs  and 

remotely  with  Chelonians.  (Mh.  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  xiv.,  513.) 

XXXIV.   MISSING  LINKS. 

I.  Unavoidable  Imperfection  of  the  Known  Record. 

1.  Most  animals  that  have  lived  have  completely  perished. 

(1.)  The  calcareous  secretions  of  marine  forms  the  principal  relics  preserved. 

(2.)  All  animals  without  hard  secretions  have  perished. 

(3.)  Terrestrial  Vertebrates  preserved  only  by  burial  in  sediments. 

(4.)  Fossils  of  ancient  rocks  destroyed  by  metamorphism. 

2.  The  fossiliferous  rocks  very  imperfectly  explored. 
(1.)  No  region  or  locality  completely  exhausted. 

(2.)  The  greater  part  of  the  earth  quite  uninvestigated. 

3.  The  known  record  presents  many  gaps  in  the  graduated  succession 

of  organic  form. 

4.  But  the  number  and  the  breadth  of  the  gaps  continually  dimin- 

ishing. 

II.  Missing  Links  between  Inorganic  Matter  and  the  First 

Known  Organisms.  (Dawson :  Story,  325.) 

1.  Assuming  Eozoon  to  be  organic. 

2.  Assuming  Eozoon  to  be  inorganic. 

(1.)  Rank  of  first  Cambrian  types,  Brachiopods  and  Trilobites. 
(2.)  Absence  of  Polyzoa.    —    Appeared  in  the  fifth  (Chazy)  fauna. 
(3.)  Absence  of  Echinodermata,  Coelenterata  and  Protozoa. 


III.  Q-ap  between  Invertebrates  and  Vertebrates. 

1.  Appearance  of  Fishes  in  early  Devonian  or  late  Silurian. 

2.  Rank  and  distinctness  from  nearest  related  older  tpyes. 
(1.)  Ganoids,  Placoderms  and  Selachians. 

(2.)  Eurypterus  and  Pterygotus.    —    May  be  compared  with  the  later  Pterichtkys. 
—    But  no  structural  resemblance. 

3.  The  gap  occupied  in  the  modern  world  by  Myxinoids,  (Hux.  109.) 

Lampreys,  (Hux.  110)  and  Lancelots.  (Hux.  104.) 

IV.  Gap  between  Pishes  and  Amphibians  and  Reptiles. 

1.  Earliest  known  Amphibians,  Raniceps,  Amphibamus,  Baphetes,  An- 

thracosaurus. 

2.  Highest  type  of  contemporaneous  fishes. 

3.  This  gap  also  occupied  in  the  modern  world  by  lower  Amphibi- 

ans (Salamanders  and  Proteids)  and  Dipnoans.  (Hux.  145.     Also 
Lect.,  XXXI.,  III.,  1.  (1).) 

4.  But  reptilian  Eosaurus  also  lived  with  first  Amphibians. 

V.  Gap  between  Mammals  and  older  Vertebrates. 

1.  First  Mammals  insectivorous  Marsupials  during  Triassic.  (D.  416.) 

2.  Not  known  to  be  preceded  by  Birds. 

3.  The  highest  Reptiles  followed  the  first  Mammals. 

4.  The  vertebrate  succession  is  from  Lizard-like  and  Alligator-like 

Reptiles  to  Mammals.  No  connecting  links  known,  either 

extinct  or  living. 

5.  Or,  it  is  from  highest  Amphibians  (Triassic  Labryrinthodonts)  to 

Mammals.    --    Connecting  links  equally  unknown. 

6.  But  the  mammalian  line,  in  the  living  world,  descends  two  steps 

lower,  in  Ornithorhynchus  and  Echidna.  (Hux.  274.) 

VI.  No  certain  connecting  links  between  Marsupial  and  Pla- 

cental  Mammals. 

1.  Mammals  exclusively  Marsupial  to  end  of  Mesozoic  time. 

2.  Csenozoic  time  opens  with  a  diversified  fauna  of  placental  mam- 

mals. 

VII.  The  Gap  between  Man   and    Lower  Mammals.   (Daws.: 

Story,  328.) 

1.  The  distinction  structural,  but  not  in  respect  to  rank  of  the  gen- 

eral structure. 

(1.)  Man's  organism  generally  not  superior.      -          In  some  respects  retrospective. 
(2.)  But  all  correlations  with  his  psychic  nature  a  great  advance.  Relative 

capacity  of  cranium.    —    Extreme  cephalization. 

2.  No  connecting  forms  as  yet  discovered.     -       Not  so  with  existing 

apes  and  their  predecessors. 

VIII.  A  Gap  between  Gymnosperms  and  Angiosperms. 

1.  To  the  end  of  the  Jurassic,  we  know  only  Conifers  and  Cycads 
among  flowering  plants. 


—  67  — 

2.  With  earliest  Cretaceous,  appear  abundant  Angiosperms. 
These  even  closely  akin  to  modern  species. 

XXXV.  MISPLACED  CONNECTING  LINKS. 

I.  Links  structurally  intermediate  separable  into  two  classes. 

1.  Intermediate  terms  chronologically  discordant.  Styled  by 

Huxley  "  intercalary  types."  ( Critiques  and  Addreses,  188.) 

2.  Intermediate  terms  chronologically  concordant.  Styled  by 

Huxley  "  linear  types."  (Ibid.) 

II.  Certain  LIVING  FORMS  intercalary  between  extinct  forms. 

1.  Gregarinidae  stand  between  Eozoon  and  inorganic  matter. 

2.  Seven  Crustacean  orders  between  Cambrian  Trilobites  and  Eozoon. 

-  Also  all  Echinodermata  and  Coelenterata. 

3.  Living  Dog-Fishes  between  Devonian  Selachians  and  lower  forms. 

-  Also  Hag-Fishes  and  Lancelots.        -     Such  examples  abun- 
dant. 

III.  Certain  EXTINCT  FORMS  intercalary  between  forms   more 

remotely  extinct.  (See  references,  Lecture  XV.) 

1.  Pterodactylus,  a  reptile  with  wings,  ornithic  scapula,  coracoid  and 

other  conformations.  (Hux. :  229;  Mivart:  Genesis  of  Species,  84  ; 
Seeley,  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  Aug.  1870,  140 ;  Ornithosauria, 
and  Index  to  Foss.  Rem.  Woodw.  Mus.)  Middle  Oolite  to  later 

Cretaceous.  -  -  Ornithopsis  Seeley.  (Ann.  Mag.  N.  H.,  IV.,  v.  279  ; 
A.  J.  S.,  II.,  xlix.,  393. 

2.  Ramphorhynchus  and  Dimorphodon,  reptiles  with  wings  and  horny 

tip  of  mandibles,  but  a  long  tail.  (Hux.  231-2.)  Lower  to 

Middle  Oolite. 

3.  Pteranodon,  a  reptile  with  wings,  short  tail,  no  teeth,  and  bird-like 

head.    -  -    Later  Cretaceous. 

4.  Arch&opteryx,  a  bird,  but  with  long  vertebrated  tail  and  separate 

metacarpals.  (D.  447 ;  Mivart :  op.  cit.,  86.)    -  -    Middle  Oolite. 

5.  Ichthyornis,  a  bird  with  good  wings,  but  with  socketed  teeth  and 

bi-concave  vertebrae.    —    Later  Cretaceous. 

6.  Hesperornis,  a  bird  with  poor  wings,  and  teeth  in  grooves. 

Later  Cretaceous. 

7.  Typical  aquatic  and  cursorial  birds.    -  -     Later  Cretaceous. 

8.  Remarkable  showing  of  the  preceding  list  of  forms. 
(1.)  A  striking  general  graduation  from  reptile  to  bird. 

(2.)  A  strange  crossing  of  structural  affinities. 

(3.)  The  line  runs  toward  "  carinate  "  and  not  "  struthious  "  birds. 

(4.)  But  the  chronological  order  is  not  conformable  to  the  structural. 

IV.  Another  structural  passage  between  Reptiles  and  Birds. 

(Hux.,  225-6 ;  C.I.,  86-90.  See  also  references,  Lect.  XV.)  —    Geii- 


—  68  — 

eral  characters  of  the  Ornithoscelids.  Generally  regarded 

as  showing  transition  toward  Struthious  Birds.  (C.  I.,  86-90.) 

1.  Jlguanodon,  a  reptile  having  tips  of  premaxillaries  toothless. 

Older  Cretaceous  or  Later  Jurassic. 

2.  Rhynchosaurus,  with  toothless  mandibles.  Trias  of  Europe 

and  America. 

3.  Hadrosaurus  and  Lselaps,  with  weak  fore-legs  and  probably  bipe- 

dal attitude.    —     Cretaceous  of  America. 

4.  Anomcepus,  with  four  toes  before,  and  three  bird-like  toes  behind. 

-  Trias  of  Connecticut  valley. 

5.  Compsognathus,  with  light,  bird-like  head,  and  astragalus  anchy- 

losed  to  tibia.  (Hux.,  225,  228.)    --    Middle  Oolite. 

6.  Laosaurus  and  Hypsilophodon,  resembling  last,  but  having  ornithic 

ischiac  and  post-pubic  bones,  and  three  toes.  (Mh.,  xvi.,  415-6, 
pi.  viii-x.) 

7.  Brontozoum,  bipedal,  three-toed,  with   ornithic  arrangement  of 

phalanges.    -  -     Trias  of  Connecticut. 

8.  Typical  Struthious  Birds.    -  -    Later  Cretaceous. 

9.  Conclusions  from  this  showing : — The  structural  gradations  real. 

-  They  run  toward  Struthious,  and  not  Carinate,  Birds. 

The  most  bird-like  Ornithoscelids  the  oldest.  — .  Types  con- 
necting them  with  other  reptiles  follow  instead  of  preceding. 
—  The  bulk  of  the  reptile-fauna  lived  after  the  most  bird-like 
genera.  —  Real  birds  believed  to  have  existed  simultaneously 
with  the  most  bird-like  reptiles.  —  Mammals  certainly  lived 
at  the  same  time.  Nevertheless,  the  idea  of  serial  relations 

of  structure  was  extant  in  the  world. 
V.  Inferences  from  misplaced  links  only  provisional. 

1.  Not  at  liberty  to  infer  that  the  real  chronological  order  was  not 

conformable  to  the  structural. 

2.  Future  discoveries  may  bring  many  of  the  facts  into  chronolog- 

ical adjustment. 

XXXVI.   CONNECTING  LINKS  CHRONOLOGICALLY  ADJUSTED. 

Besides  the  works  cited  below,  see  Albert  Gaudry,  in  researches 
on  the  fossils  of  Pikermi  and  Mont  L4beron ;  W.  Kowalewsky,  in 
investigations  of  the  osteology  of  Hyopotamidae ;  Huxley :  Critiques 
and  Addresses,  181-217,  Ann.  Add.,  1870;  New  York  Lectures,  1876,  N. 
Y.  Tribune  Extra,  No.  36  ;  Cope :  Stratigraphic  relations  of  the  Orders  of 
Reptilia,  in  Proc.  Am.  Acad.,  Boston,  xix.,  194  ;  Am.  J.  S.,  III.,  ii.,  217. 
Consult,  also,  Haeckel :  Naturliche  Schdpfungsgeschichte  and  Anthro- 
pogenie  (both  in  English  translation.  See  further,  Part  II.,  of  the  Syl- 
labus.) 


I.  The  Horse-Series.  (See  Lect.  XVII.,  IV.,  1,  (4)  (6).) 

1.  Equus  of  the  living  fauna.  (Hux.  293-307.)  Marked  state  of 

structural  isolation. 
(1.)  Structures  of  the  fore-limb. 
(2.)  Structures  of  the  hind-limb. 
(3.)  Structures  of  the  teeth. 
(4.)  Five  or  six  American  species,  beginning  late  in  Pliocene. 

2.  Pliohippus,  of  middle  Pliocene  or  earlier.        •     Smaller  size.     — 

Central  digital  series  more  slender.  Splints  more  elon- 

gated. Crown  of  Upper  molars  shorter,  and  crescentic 

areas  simpler. 

3.  Protohippus,  of  Early  Pliocene.    —    Size  of  Ass.    —    Central  dig- 

ital series  still  m ore  slender.  —  Splints  terminated  by  dangling 
hooflets.  -  Ulna  long  as  arm,  but  slender.  -  -  Fibula  rudi- 
mentary. -  -  Crowns  of  molars  much  shorter.  —  Anchippus 
and  European  Hipparion  (=  Hippotherium)  were  closely  related, 
and  Merychius  was  probably  identical.  --  Anchippus,  Hipparion 
and  Stylonus  constitute  a  collateral  series.  (Cope,  IX.,  14.) 

4.  Miohippus,  of  Late  Miocene  of  Oregon.     —      Size  of  sheep.      — 

Three  functional  toes  before  and  three  behind.  -  -  Also  small 
splint  of  Vth  digit,  before.  —  Ulna  distinct,  long  as  radius, 
but  very  slender  distally.  —  Fibula  co-ossified  with  tibia  at 
lower  end.  —  Molar  crowns  decidedly  short.  —  Enamel 
folds  much  simpler  than  in  horse.  —  The  Older  Miocene 
Anchilherium,  the  oldest  equine  known  in  Europe,  is  closely  re- 
lated, but  a  little  more  specialized. 

5.  Mesohippus,  of  Oldest  Miocene.  Size  of  sheep.     •        Three 

functional  toes  before  and  three  behind,  but  more  nearly  equal 
than  in  Miohippus.    -  -    Larger  splints  of  Vth  digit,  before. 
Radius  and  ulna  distinct,  and  also  tibia  and  fibula. 

6.  Epihippus,  of  Later  Eocene.  (Mh.  A.  J.  S.  III.,  xvii.,  504.) 

Resembled  Orohippus  in  its  digits,  but  differed  in  its  teeth. 

7.  Orohippus  of  Middle  Eocene  of  Wyoming  and  Utah.    --    Size  of 

fox.       —       Four  functional  toes  before  and  three  behind. 
Ulna  complete  and  distinct  from  radius ;  tibia  and  fibula  also 
distinct.  Molar  crowns  exceedingly  short.  Enamel 

pattern  simple. 

8.  Eohippus,  of  Oldest  Eocene  of  New  Mexico.  Size  of  fox. 

Four  functional  toes  before  and  three  behind.  Rudi- 

ment of  outer  or  Vth  toe  behind,  and  hence,  probably  of  1st 
digit  before.    -  -    Hoofs  mere  thick,  broad  and  blunt  claws.    - 
Molars  less  specialized  than  in  Orohippus,  without  cement.       — 


—  70  — 

Other  structures  similar.  Carpal  bones  eight,  and  some- 

what similar  to  tapir. 

II.  The  Camel  Series.  (See  Lecture  XVII,  V,  1,  (2),(e)  and  VI.,  1,  (1). 

1.  Camelus  of  the  living  fauna.  (Hux.  329.)  Cervical  vertebrae. 

Metacarpals  separated  only  by  deep  cleft.  Large  canines 

in  each  jaw.    -  -    Premaxillaries  each  with  one  incisor. 

2.  Procamelu*  (=Homocamelus)  of  the  Pliocene  of  Colorado. 

Premaxillaries  with  full  set  of  incisors ;  but  the  lateral  tempor- 
ary. External  incisors  and  canines  alike.  Molars 
4-3.  -  Lateral  rudimentary  metacarpals  wanting.  -  Trap- 
ezoides  wanting.  --  Middle  metacarpals  finally  united. 

3.  Protolabis  of  the  Pliocene  of  Colorado.  (Cope,  P.  A.  N.  S.,   1876, 

145 ;  VIII.,  325.)  Full  set  of  permanent  upper  incisors. 

Molars  4-3,  but  the  posterior  are  sub-prismatic. 

4.  Po'ebrotherium  of  the  Miocene  of  Colorado.    -        Molars  4-3,  as  in 

primitive  mammals  generally.  The  two  metacarpals  dis- 

tinct. -  -  Rudiments  of  lateral  metacarpals.  -  -  The  presence 
of  a  trapezium,  two  digits  and  separated  metacarpals  allies  it 
with  the  older  Anoplotheridse. 

III.  The  Bhinocerus  Series.  (C.  XL,  227-33.) 

1.  Ccelodonta  of  the  Pliocence  had  dentition  i  - — ,  c  — ,  and   three 

anterior  digits. 

2.  Atelodus  of  the  Upper  Miocene  had  the  same. 

3.  Ceratorhinus  of  the  Middle  Miocene  had  i  — ,  c  ~,  and   digits  the 

same.  --  Rhinocerus  of  the  Upper  Miocene  and  recent  fauna 
had  the  same. 

2       0 

4.  Aceratherium  of  the  ;Lower  Miocene,  had  i   y,  c    -•,  and  fonr  an- 

terior digits,  and  no  horn.  Zalabis  of  the  Upper  Miocene 

had  i  —,  c  —;  but  this  genus,  as  known,  was  chronologically  mis- 
placed. 

5.  Other  characters  of  the  genera  were  correspondingly  graduated. 

IV.  Sundry  Examples.  (See   fnrther,  Huxley :    Critiques  and  Ad- 

dresses, 188-90  ;  Owen|:  Anat.  of  Vertebrates,  ch.,  xl.,  §  424  ;  Cope, 
Proc.  Am.  Acad.,  xix.) 

1.  Dicrocerus  stands  between  Antilocapra  and  other  mammals. 

2.  Slastomeryx,  between  Cariacus  and  older  forms.  (C.  VIII.,  223.) 

3.  Miocene  Hyracodon,  between  Eocene  Hyrachyus  and  modern  mam- 

mals. (Mh.  ix.,  244.) 

4.  Cercoleptes,  between  Carnivora  and  Quadrumana. 


—  71  — 

5.  Diplacodon,  between  Limnohyus  and  Srontotherium.  (Mh.  ix.,  246.) 

6.  Pliocene  Squalodon,  between  living  Cetacea  and  Eocene  Zeuglodon. 

(Hux.:  Grit.,  190.) 

7.  The   elephant  series  extends   back    through    Elephas,  Miocene 

Dinotherium,  Eocene   Dinoceras,    Lower  Eocene    Coryphodon  to 
tOligotomus.  (C.  III.,  648.) 

8.  Dinotherium  possessed  Marsupial  bones. 

9.  The  oldest  Tortoises  (Psephoderma)  intermediate  between  Lacer- 

tilia  and  typical  Tortoises.  (Cope,  Proc.  Am.  Acad.,  xix.,  194.) 

XXXVII.  MAN  IN  THE  LIGHT  OF  GEOLOGY. 

I.  Man  the  Fulfillment  of  the  Prophecies  of  the  Ages. 

1.  Meaning  of  the  announcemont  of  a  Law  of  Progress. 
(1.)  Progressive  improvement  of  organic  types. 

(2.)  Prophecy  of  the  earliest  Vetebrate.    —    Man  in  potentiality. 
(3.)  Progressive  modification  of  limbs. 

(a.)  Fibh.    —    Amphibian.    —    Reptile,    —    Bird.    —    Mammal. 

(5.)  Proclamation  that  man  must  conform  to  the  same  plan. 

(c.)  Psychic  relations  superadded  to  structural  in  the  human  arm. 

2.  Promise  of  an  intelligent  being  in  geological  adaptations  having 

relations  only  to  man.    -  -    Coal.     -        Metals.    -  -    Wells  and 
Springs. 

II.  Man's  Birth-place  Foreshadowed. 

1.  Faunal  characteristics  of  the  existing  continents. 

2.  These  established  before  the  advent  of  Man. 

3.  The  pinnacle  of  organization  fixed  in  the  Orient. 

4.  Corroborative  evidences  of  Man's  oriental  origin. 

(1.)  Human  migrations,  as  far  as  known,  have  been  eastward.  (Am.  Jour.,  II.  xlv., 
376 ;  Max  Miiller :  Chips ;  Atlantic  Monthly,  187S ;  T.  Poesche  :  Die  Arier.  erstes 
Buch. ;  Jubainville ;  Les  prem.  Habitants  de  PEurope,  ch.  iii.,  iv.)  and  west- 
ward from  the  Orient.  (Jubainville :  ut  sup.,  and  generality  of  writers,) 

(2.)  Cultivated  plants  have  come  from  the  East.  (Pat.  Office  Rep.,  1859,  299,361)  - 
Of  770  plants  used  for  food,  566  came  from  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  •  Of 
237  amylaceous  plants,  191  originated  in  the  Old  World. 

III.  Man  the  Culmination  of  the  Organic  Series. 

1.  The  erect  attitude  attained.     —    Progressive  elevation  of  the  lon- 

gitudinal axis  in  older  vertebral  es. 

2.  Man-  a  cosmopolite,  in  opposition  to  the  law  of  increasing  restric- 

tion of  geographical  range. 

3.  Nature,  in  man,  seems  to  have  reached  a  period. 
(1.)  Other  animals  his  equal  or  superior  structurally. 

(2.)  Man's  structure,  in  some  respects,  retrospective. 
(3.)  In  cephalization,  far  in  advance. 

4.  Spiritual  (educational)  progress  still  possible. 

5.  Functional  limitation  of  the  progress  of  apiritualization. 


—  72  — 

IV.  Man's  Advent  ;since  the  Last  Great  Geological  Revolu- 

tion. 

1.  Restriction  of  human  relics  to  most  superficial  deposits. 

2.  Man  of  history  not  preglacial. 

3.  Man  of  historical  regions  not  preglacial. 

4.  Geological  evidence  knows  nothing  inductively,  as  yet,  concern- 

ing man  of  unhistorical  races  and  regions. 

V.  Geological  Man,  as  far  as  known,  the  Equal  of  Existing 

Races.      s 

VI.  Links  Missing  between  Man  and  the  animals  next  lower. 

(Lecture  XXXIV,  VII.) 

1.  Man's  affinities  with  anthropoid  apes  and  lower  Quadrumama. 

2.  Not  held  by  evolutionists  as  a  descendent  of  these. 

3.  No  known  relics  of  his  assumed  line  of  descent. 

2.  Provisional  inferences  of  Wallace  as  an  evolutionist. 

5.  Consequences  of  the  establishment  of  Man's  derivating  origin. 
Vn.  Man's  Organism  bound  up  with  the  history  of  the  Mate- 
rial "World. 

2.  Identified  with  its  inorganic  history.    --    Always  conditioned  by 

physical  surroundings. 
2.  Identified  with  its  organic  history.  Interwoven  in  every 

plan  of  organic  structure  and  function. 
VIII.  Indications   of  a   Psycjiic  Principle    correlated  to  the 

Immaterial  and  the  Immutable. 

1.  The  plans  of  nature  the  products  of  Intelligence. 

2.  Forms  change  and  perish,  but  nature's  conceptions  endure. 

3.  Man  comprehends  nature,  and  thus  thinks  the  thoughts  of  the 

Author  of  nature. 

4.  That  which  thinks   as  the  Author  of  the  Universe  thinks,  pos- 

kindred  nature,  spiritual  and  imperishable. 


—  73  — 

PART  II, 
THEORETICAL  GEOLOGY, 


XXXVIU.   INTERNAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

[The  questions  concerning  the  internal  condition  of  the  earth,  metamorphism  and 
the  dynamics  of  volcanoes,  earthquakes  and  mountain-making  are  so  intimately  con- 
nected that  most  of  the  works  cited  here,  and  in  Lectures  XXIV,  XXVI  and  XLIV.inay 
be  advantageously  consulted  on  each  of  these  subjects.] 

W.  HOPKINS,  Transactions  Royal  Soc.,  1836,  p.  382 ;  1839,  p.  38;  1840,  p.  193  ;  1842,  p. 
48,  maintaining  existence  of  a  very^thick  and  completely  solid  crust;  On  the  Geological 
Theories  of  Elevation  and  Earthquakes',  Report  Brit.  Assoc.  l?47,  pp.  33-93,  assigning  vapors 
as  a  cause;  Q.  J.  Geol.  Soc.,  viii,  56. 

HENNESEY  :  Researches  in  Terrestrial  Physics,  Phil.  Trans.,  1851,  545. 
POULETT  SCROPE  :  Volcanoes,  8vo.,  2d  ed.,  1872 ;  Geol.  Mag.,  Dec.  1878. 
KEFERSTEIN:  Naturgeschite  des  Erdkorpers  1834,  vol  i,  109;   Butt.  Soc.  geologiquc  dt 
France,  I.  viii,  197. 

CHARLES  BABBAGE,  Geological  Notices,  No.  K6;  Proc.  Oeol.  Soc.,  Lond.,  1836  ii;  Ninth 
Bridgewater  Treatise,  Note  G,  209-220. 

/       SIR  JOHN  HERSCHEL,  Proc.  Geol.  Soc.,  Lond.,  1836,  ii,  548  ;    Babbage's  Ninth  Bridge- 
water  Treatise,  Note  I,  225-247. 

ROBERT  MALLET,  Dynamics  of  Earthquakes,  Trans,  Roy.  Irish  Acad.,  xxi,  pt.  i,  1846; 
First  Report  to  the  Brit.  Assoc.,  1850;  Facts  and  Theory  of  Earthquakes,  Trans.  Brit.  Assoc., 
1857-8.,  Fourth  Report,  (Other  Reports  in  1851,1852,1853,1854);  The  Great  Neapolitan 
Earthquake  of  I8o7,  2vols.,  8vo,  186?,  pt.  iii,  Principles  of  Seismology ;  Earthquake  Wave 
Experiments,  Phil.  Trans.,  1862,  voJ .  cliii ;  Note  on  the  History  of  certain  recent  Views  on  Dy- 
namical Geology,  A.  J.  S.  Ill  v.  302,  Apr.  1873 ;  Volcanic  Energy  :  An  Attempt  to  develop  its 
true  Origin  and  Cosmical  Relalicwt,  Phil.  Trans.,  1873,  pt.  i,  147,  abstract,  A.  J.  8.,  Ill,  iv, 
409-12,  vii,  145-8;  Additions  to  the  foregoing  memoir,  Phil.  Trans.,  1875,  vol.  clxv,  pt.  1, 
(read  May,  1878),  abstract.  A.  J.  S..  JH,  viii,  140-1;  On  the  present  state  of  knowledge  of  Ter- 
restrial Vulcanicity,  the  Cosmical  failure  and  Relations  of  Volcanoes  and  Earthquakes,  an  In- 
troduction to  Prof.  L.  PALMiEKrs  work  on  the  Eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  1872,  extract,  A.  J. 
S.,  Ill,  v.  219-25 ;  On  the  Mechanism  of  Stromboli,  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.,  25  June,  1874,  abstract, 
A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  viii,  200-2;  On  I  lit  Temperature  attainable  by  Rock-crushing,  and  its  Conse- 
quences,  Phil.  Mag.,  July  1875  and  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  x,  256-68;  On  the  Origin  and  Mechanism 
of  Production  of  Prismatic  01  Columnar  Structure  of  Basalt,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  21  Jan.  1875, 
abstract  A.  J.  S.,  in,  ix,  206-1  J. 

T.  S.  HUNT:  Chemical  ami  Geological  Essays,  (see  also,  review  of  same  by.J.  D.  Dana, 
A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ix,  102-9),  especially  Ih-wy  of  Igneous  Rocks  and  Volcanoes  (1858),  pp.  1-10 ; 
Probable  Seat  of  Volcanic  Actitn.  (1860  >,  pp.  59-69 ;  Criticism  of  Joseph  Leconte's  views,  A. 
J.  S.,  Ill,  V.  264-70  (1875). 

SIR  W.  THOMSON,    Phil.  J'rans.  May  16  and  Nov.  27, 1862,  xii,  103,  ib.,  1864,  on  neces- 
sary rigidity  of  the  earth ;  f  bomsoii  and  Tail's  Natural  Philosophy.  %  832, 833, 834, 847, 848 ; 
Trans.  Geol.  Soc.,  Glasgow,  iii:    Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinb.,  xxiii,  pt.  i,  157,  on  the  secular 
cooling  of  the  earth ;  Natwc  Jan.  18  and  Feb.  1, 1872,  objections  to  Mallet's  theory. 
X"     J.  D.  DANA,  A.  J.  S.,  II1..  v,  i>3 ;  vi,  6-14, 104-6 , 161-72.    (See  references   Lect  XLIV). 
Also  A.  J.  S.,  II,  ii,  385 ;  iii,  91,  J7<>  880 ;  iv,  88 ;  xxii,  305,  335. 
F 


—  74  — 

^  E.  W.  HILGARD:  On  some  points  in  Malices  Theory  of  Vulcanicity,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  vil, 
535-46,  June,  1874,  and  Phil.  Mag.,  July,  1874,  41. 

J.  D.  WHITNEY  :  North  American  Review,  Apr.  1869. 

HENRY  WURTZ:  Amer.  Jour,  of  Mining,  25  fan.  1868 ;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  v.  385. 

DAUBREE  :  Synthetical  Studies  and  Experiments  on  Metamorphism,  and  on  the  Formation 
of  Crystalline  Rocks,  Ann.  Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  1861,  228-3)4  trans,  from 
Annales  des  Mines,  5  ser.,  xvi,  155,  393,  many  references  appended.  On  theory  see  pt.  iii. 

O.  FISHER,  Remarks  upon  Mf.MalleCs  Theory  of  Volcanic  Energy,  Q.  J.  Geol.  Soc., 
Lond.,  xxxi,  469-78, 12  May,  1875 ;  Camb.  Phil.  Trans.,  xi,  pt.  3,  p.  489  ;  ib.  pt.  2,  p.  18. 

GEN.  G.  J.  BARNARD,  Smithsonian  Contributions,  No.  240,  difficulties  in  Mallet's  the- 
ory, but  surmountable. 

DELAUNAY,  Comptes  Rendus,  July  13, 1868;  Cours  elementaire  d'  Astronomic,  643,  644. 

STANISLAS  MEUNIER  :  Lt  del  Geologique,  1871,  223. 

D.  FORBES,  Na'ure,  6  Feb.  1872,  difficulties  of  Mallet's  theory. 

F.  W.  HUTTON,  Nature,  27  Nov.  1873.  difficulties  of  Mallet's  theory. 

N.  S.  SHALER,  Proc.  Bos.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  x,  237 ;  xi,  8 ;  Oeol.  Mag.,  Nov.  1868,  v.  5, 11 ; 
Atlantic  Monthly. 

ARCHDEACON  PRATT.  Phil.  Mag.,  xli,  307, 1871. 

See,  also,  JAMES  HUTTON:  Theory  of  the  Earth,  with  Proofs  and  Illustrations.  In  4  pts. 
Edinb.  2  vols.  8vo.,  1795  ;  JOHN  PLAYPAIR  :  Illustrations  of  the  Hattonian  Theory  of  the 
Earth.  Edinb.,  1802;  YOUNG:  Lectures  on  Natural  Philosophy,  i,  717, 1807 ;  GAY-LUSSAC  : 
Annales  de  Chemie,  xxii, 428 ;  MILNE:  The  Lisbon  Earthquakes  of  1875  and  1861,  Edinb. 
Phil.  J(jur.,  xxxi ;  POISSONS  :  Note  sur  le  rapport  qui  exinte  entre  les  refroidissements  progressif 
de  la  masse  dtt  globe  terrestre  et  celui  de  la  surface,  Comptes  Rendus,  xix.  1844,  and  1'Institut, 
1845,  32;  B.  TRASK,  On  California  Earthquake  of  Jan.  1857,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xxv,  146;  J. 
SCHMIDT  :  Dos  Erdbeben  von  29  Juli,  1846 ;  and  Untersuchungen  iiber  dem  Erdbeben  am  15 
Jan.  1858. 

'  I.  Indications  of  Internal  Heat.    (Lects.  II.  and  XXVI.;  D.  699  ) 

1.  Traces  of  former  heat  upon  the  earth's  surface. 

2.  Deep  excavations,  thermal  waters,  volcanoes. 

A  3.  Hypothesis  of,  intense  chemical  action.    (Sir  H.  Davy,  Phil.  Trans. 

1828,  1832;  Lyell:  Prin.,  527-32;  Daubeney,  Jameson's  Edinb.  New 

Phil.  Jour.,  I'm.,  and   Encyc.  Metrop.  pt.  40;  Ennis:  Origin  of  the 

Stars. 

4.  More  probable  inference  of  a  long  cooling  process  still  continued. 

II.  Hypothesis  of  thin  Crust  and  Molten  or  Pasty  Interior. 
(0.  Fisher,  Camb.  Phil.  Trans,  xii.  pt.  ii. ;  Descartes:  Principes  de 
la  Philos.,  1644,  pt.  iv.,  U  2,  44,  72;  Newton  ;  Principia  Math.  Phil. 
Nat.,  1667  ;  Leibnitz,  Ada  Eruditorum,  Jan.,  1693,  and  Prologsea, 
1749  ;  Buflbn  :  Les  epoques  de  la  nature,  1778.) 

}Q..  Solidifying  substaneesjloat  in  the  molten  magma.  —  Water, 
type-metal.  —  'Solidifying  iron  (College  Courant,  13  Apr.  1872, 
p  173  ;  Nature,  10  May,  1877,  23 ;  8  Aug.,  1878,  397,  conclusive  ex- 
periments; 29  Aug.,  1878, 464 ;  xvi.,  23  ;  MaHet's  apparently  con- 
tradictory experiments,  Nature,  No.  156,  abstr.  A.  J.  S.,  III.,  viii., 
212 ;  A.  Schmidt,  A.  J.  S-,  III.,  viii.,  287,  explaining  Mallet.)  — 
Lava  floating  on  liquid  lava.  (Scrope:  Volcanoes,  84  ;  Kaemtz: 
Meteorology,  152  ;  Marsh  :  Man  and  Nature,  545. 


—  75  — 

2.  Cooled  terrestrial  materials  would  float. 

3.  Indications  of  such  a  constitution  of  the  earth. 

(1.)  Observed  rate  of  increase  of  downward  temperature.    (Lects.  II.  and  XXVI.) 
(2.)  Enormous  lava  outflows  in  geologic  and  recent  periods.    (Lect.  XXVI.,  I.) 
(3.)  Reputed  influence  of  moon  on  earthquakes.    (Lect.  XXVI.,  IV.,  1.) 
yt  4.  Objected,  that  such  a  constitution  gives  the  earth  too  little  rigid- 
ity.   ( W.  Hopkins,  Thomson,  ut  sup.,  and  Barnard's  reply.) 
/t1  HI.  Hypothesis  of  a  Solidified  Interior.    (W.  Hopkins,  W.  Thom- 
son.) 
?'  1.  Enormous  pressure  upon  the  central  portions  of  the  earth. 

Solidification  the  probable  result.       —       This  preceding  super- 
ficial solidification,  (Thomson ) 
2.  General  admission  of  this  hypothesis. 

IV.  The  Sources  of  Lava  Supplies. 

1.  Theory   of  a  plastic  zone  between   the   two  solidified   portions, 

(Hunt,  as  above.) 

(1.)  A.  transitional  zone  must  probably  exist.  —  Too  hot  to  be  congealed,  and 
too  superficial  to  be  pressed  solid. 

(2.)  Zone  not  supposed  continuous.  —  Contiguous  volcanoes,  like  Mauna  Loa 
and  Kilauea,  not  always  sympathetic,  (N.  A.  Review,  cviii.,  598.)  —  Refriger- 
ation may,  in  some  places,  reach  the  depth  of  solidification  by  pressure.  — 
Hypothesis  of  lakes  of  plastic  matter. 

(3.)  Position  and  volume  of  the  plastic  zone  changeable,  as  pressure  or  conduc- 
tivity of  overlying  masses  varies. 

2.  Theory   of   a  semi-fluid    interior  combined    with    superheated 

water,  (Fisher,  Camb.  Phil.  Trans  ,  xii.,  pt.  ii.)      —      Assumes -a 
combination  not  known  to  be  possible. 
(3.)  Theory  of  melting  heat  as  the  result  of  lateral  crushing  pressure 

(Wurtz,  Mallet.  Leconte,  Hilgard.) 
(1.)  Terrestrial  shrinkage  from  cooling. 

(2.)  Experiments  on  the  development  of  heat  by  crushing,  (Mallet.) 
(3.)  Objections  made  to  the  contractional   theory,  (Thomson,  Fisher,  Barnard, 
Button,  Button.) 

V.  Denials  of  any  Knowledge  of  the  Earth's  Interior.    (Evan 

Hopkins;  James  Hall,  American  Institute   Lecture,  New   York, 
1869,  cited  in  W.  434. 

XXXIX.    PRIMORDIAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  EARTH. 


LEIBNITZ:  Protogsea,  1719.  (abstract  in  Ada  Eruditorwm,  Leipzic,  1683.)  or  synopsis  of 
this  by  CONYBEARE,  in  Report  British  Association,  1832;  Buffou:  Theorie  de  to  Terre. 
3849;  Epoques  de  la  Nature,  1775. 

I.  All  Presedimentary  History  Beached  only  by  Deduction. 
1.  The  oldest  known  rocks  sedimentary.     (Lect,  JII.) 


—  76  — 

2.  But  a  process  of  cooling  implies  a  fire-formed  crust.       —       This 

probably  remelted  by  ascent  of  geisothermal  planes.  (Lect. 
III.,  I.,  3.) 

3.  May  reason  backward,  on  the  basis  of  the  laws  of  matter  and 

force.  —  This  brings  us  to  a  completely  molten  condition. 
(D.,  146  ;  W.,  28-35  ;  Leibnitz,  ut  supra.)  —  Then  to  a  vaporous 
one.  (D.,  148  ;  W.,  36-9.) 

4.  The  fluent  condition  indicated  by  the  earth's  spherical  form. 

5.  A  shrinkage  explanation  must  probably  be  given  of  the  counter- 

action of  the   retarding  influence  of  the  tides  on  the  earth's 
rotation  during  2,000  years.     (W.,  403-5;  Helmholtz:    Interac. 
Nat.  Forces,  Younians'  ed.,  243-7;  Mayer:  The  Tidal  Wave,  Youm., 
ed.,  299,  and  The  Earth's  Internal  Heat,  312.) 
H.  The  Volatility  of  all  Matter. 

1.  The  solid,  liquid  and  gaseous  conditions  dependent  chiefly  on 

Temperature  and  Pressure.  (Lyell:  Prin.,  538.)  —  Familiar 
examples.  —  'Volatilization  of  silica  in  the  Bessimer  process 
of  steel-making.  —  Volatilization  of  iron  by  Dr.  Eisner.  — 
Condensation  of  carbonic  acid  by  Dr.  Hare.  —  Condensation 
of  nitrogen,  hydrogen  and  other  gases  by  Pictet  and  Cailletet. 

2.  Distinction  between  the  gaseous  and  the  vaporous  states. 
(1.)  The  gaseous  a  state  ot  dry  molecularization  or  of  atomization. 

(2.)  Vapor  or  mist  consists  of  minute  spheres  of  liquid  matter  in  suspension  either 

in  a  fluid  or  removed  from  the  considerable  action  of  gravity. 
(3.)  Minute  particles  of  solid  matter  in  similar  suspension  form  dust. 

3.  Rational  to  assume  terrestrial  cooling  to  have  proceeded  from  a 

state  of  vapor,  or  even  of  gas.  —  Enormous  volume  of  the 
planet  in  this  condition.  —  This  assumption  sustained  by  our 
knowledge  of  other  cosmical  vapors,  as  sun,  stars  and  nebulae. 

III.  Passage  from  fire-mist  to  a  molten  globe. 

A 1.  Rain  of  molten  matter.    —    Growth  of  the  liquid  core.     --    An 
*  incandescent  liquid  globe.      —      Central  solidification  by  pres- 
sure. 

2.  A  fervid  and  heterogeneous  atmosphere.      —      Many  sr  bstances 

still  gaseous.      —      Struggling  sunbeams. 

3.  Rolling  tides  of  lava. 

IV.  Freezing  of  the  Molten  Sea.    (Com p.  Lect.  XXXV     I.,  II.  I.) 
1.  Crystallization  of  the   most  refractory  substances.  Crys- 
tals of  augite,  leucite,  mica  and  black  garnet  erupl     .  in  great 
abundance  in  semi-fluid  lava  from  Vesuvius.    —    Fc.     ation  of 
first  solid  film.    --    Its  composition.    —    Itsincessa       uptures 
and  recementation.      —      A  lava  floe.      —      Contin    < 
lished.    —    A  crust  glowing  with  heat. 


—  77  — 

2.  Later  probable  ruptures  and  repairs.      —     The  cause  and  conse- 
quences. 

V.  Appearance  of  "Water,  (W.  52-5.) 

1.  The  temperature  hitherto  too  high  for  its  existence. 

2.  Gathering  clouds.    —    Sun-light  veiled  out.    —    The  still  self- 

Inminous  earth.    —    All  substances  red-hot  at  about  977°  Fah. 
( J.  W.  Draper,  A.  J.  S..,  Jan.  1877,  67). 

3.  Descending  rains.    — x  Electrical  disturbances.     —     The  war  of 

fire  and  water.    —    The  stormy  period. 

VI.  Ascendancy  of  the  "Waters. 

1.  A  universal  ocean  film.    —    Acid  rains.    —    Attacks  upon  the 

rocks.      —      The  war  of  chemical  affinities.    (W.  56-64 ;  Hunt : 
Chem.  and  Geol  Essays). 

2.  Beginning  of  sedimentation.    (Led.  VI.)    —    Chemical  and  me- 

chanical deposits. 

3.  An  age   of   physical    violence.     —     Ruptures  of    the  ocpan's 

floor.    —    Explosive  generation  of  steam.    —    Tepid    waters 
and  reeking  skies. 

4.  Probable  advent  of  marine  plants.  (Lect.  IV.,  I.) 

VII.  G-erms  of  Continents  appearing  above  the  waves. 

1.  The  first  mechanical  sediments  must  have  proceeded  from  the 

fire-formed  crust. 

2.  Mechanical  erosion  effective  only  along  a  shore-line. 

3.  There  must,  consequently,  have  been  a  shore-line  on  a  fire-formed 

land.     —     Such  lands  the  germs  of  future  continents.  (Lects. 
XXIII,  XXIV,  XLIV.) 

XL.   NEBULAR  THEORY  OP  WORLD— GENESIS. 


EMANUEL  KANT  :  Allgemeine  Naturgeschichte  und  Theorie  des  Himmels,  oder  Versuch  von 
der  Verfassung  und  dem  Meehanischen  Ursprunge  des  ganzen  Wettgebundes,  nach  Newton- 
schen  Gnmdsatzen  dbgehandelt.  Konigsberg  u.,  Leipzig,  1755.  Kant's  sammtliche  Werke 
Bd.  i.,  S.  207. 

DB.  LAMBERT:  Leltres  Cosmologiques,  1761;  Cosmological  Letters,  1828. 

JOHANN  ELERT  BODE  :  Anleitung  zur  Kentniss  des  gestirnten  Himmels,  circa,  1767. 

PIERRE  SIMON,  Marquis  de  LAPLACE  :  Exposition  du  Systeme  du  Monde,  Paris,  1796, 
tome  ii.,  ch.  6.  See  translation  in  ENNIS  :  The  Origin  of  the  Stars.  Appendix  V. 

Compare  also  A.  WINCHELL  :  Sketches  of  Creation,  ch.  iv. ;  Unity  of  the  Physical  World, 
Meth.  Quar.  Rev.,  Jan.,  1874;  Geology  of  the  Stars,  [1873 ;  FIQUIER:  The  World  before  the 
Deluge,  16-29 ;  ENNIS:  The  Origin  of  the  Stars;  MILL:  System  of  Logic.  Bk.  ii.,  ch.  xiv. ; 
L.  SAEMANN:  On  the  Unity  of  Geological  Phenomena  in  the  Solar  System,  Bull,  dela  Soc. 
geol.  de  France,  4  Feb.,  1861,  and  Canadian  Naturalist,  vi.,  444-51;  SAIGEY:  The  Unity  of 
Natural  Phenomena,  transl.  12  mo.,  254  pp.,  Boston,  1873. 


—  78  — 

I.  Common  conditions  pervading  the  Solar  System. 

1.  Common  motions.    —    Orbital,  axial,  eastward,  elliptic,  zodiacal. 

—  Kepler's  three  laws. 

2.  Common  forms. 

3.  Common  substance.    —    Spectroscopic  revelations.    --    Meteoric 

matter. 

4.  Laws  of  light.    —    Etherial  medium.    —    Gravitation. 

5.  The  bodies  of  the  system  (not  including  comets)  must  have  had  a 

common  history. 

II.  A  common  primitive  Fire-mist. 

1.  The  whole  solar  system  an  ancient  sphere  of  incandescent  vapor. 

—  Its  physical  constitution. 

2.  Probably  an  older  condition  and  another  form  of  matter.    — 

Analogical  inference  of  heated,  non-luminous,  aeriform  matter. 

3.  Cosmical  analogies  of  the  fire-mist 

(1)  The  solar  photosphere.  (Proctor :  The  Sun;  Secchi :  Le  Soldi).     —     The  solar 
nucleus  perhaps  a  non-luminous,  intensely -heated  gas.  (Faye:  Comptes  Rendws). 
—    Its  constituents  in  a  state  of  molecular  dissociation. 

(2)  The  fixed  stars  possess  a  similar  constitution. 

(3)  The  nebulae  still  more  striking  examples. 

(4)  The  condition  of  illuminated  dust  probably  seen  in  the  rings  of  Saturn  and  in 
comets  and  the  Zodiacal  light. 

III.  Behavior  of  a  Sphere  of  Fire-mist  in  space. 

1.  It  would  radiate  heat. 

2.  Through  cooling  it  would  shrink. 

3.  If  not  rotating,  a  rotation  would  be  established. 

(1.)  By  the  impinging  of  exterior  masses  against  it.    (Lect.  XLIII.) 

(2.)  By  distortion  of  form  and  change  of  position  of  centre  of  gravity  through 

external  attractions.    —    Descending  portions  would  thus  pass  one  side  of  the 

centre  of  gravity  and  generate  tangential  forces. 
(3 )  By  the  establishment  of  superficial  currents  in  passing  from  an  amorphous  to 

a  spherical  form. 

4.  Rotation  would  be  accelerated  with  shortening  of  diameter.       — 

Velocity  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  equatorial  diameter. 
^  5.  The  mass  would  become  an  increasingly  oblate  spheroid. 
-    6.  The  equatorial  periphery  would  at  length  become  equilibrated 

between  centripetal  and  centrifugal  forces. 
*.  7.  It  would  no  longer  descend  toward  the  centre,  and  the  portion 

within  would  shrink  away  from  it,  leaving  a  rotating  ring. 
«.   8.  Other  rings,  in  succession,  would  be  similarly  detached. 
;^  IV.  Behavior  of  a  Ring  of  fire-mist  surrounding  a  sphere. 

1.  It  would  continue   to  rotate  approximately  in  the  plane  of  the 
sphere's  equator,    —    But  its  equilibrium  would  be  unstable. 


-79- 

2.  It  might  assume  a  stratified  condition  and  resolve  itself  into  a 

system  of  concentric  rings.  --  Influence  of  different  velocities 
of  rotation  of  outer  and  inner  parts.  —  And  of  different  den- 
sities in  the  substance. 

3.  External  attractions  would   disturb  the  symmetry  of  it's  move- 

ments. 

(1)  A  "wobbling"  motion  might  ensue.    —    This  would  be  continually  exag- 
gerated until  the  ring  or  rings  should  be  broken. 

^  (2)  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ring  might  be  drawn  to  one  side  of  the  centre  of 
figure.  —  The  matter  would  tend  to  flow  to  the  side  nearest  this.  —  The 
opposite  side  would  become  progressively  more  tenuous. 

/  4.  However  broken,  the  ring  would  gather  itself  spherically  about 
one  center.  —  This  sphere  would  travel  orbitally  in  the  path 
determined  by  the  position  of  the  ring.  —  The  orbit  at  first 
circular  and  unstable,  would,  through  perturbations,  become 
elliptic  and  stable.  —  The  sphere  would  rotate  axially  in  the 
same  direction.  (Ennis:  Origin  of  the  Stars,  Sec.  XXX).  — 
Thus  the  matter  of  a  planet  would  become  isolated.  —  All  the 
planets  in  succession  would  assume  their  places. 
5  A  stratified  ring  or  system  of  rings  might  form  a  zone  of  planet- 
oids. 

V.  Behavior  of  a  Planetary  Sphere  of  Fire-mist. 

1.  If  large,  it  might  undergo  annulation     —    Thus  matter  for  satel- 

lites would  become  isolated.  —  These  must  present  the  same 
conformities  as  their  primaries  in  their  motions. 

2.  If  small,  liquefaction    might    result    without   annulation.        — 

Further  history.     (Lect, XXXIX.) 

3.  G.  H.  Darwin's  theory  of  satellite  origin  by  disruption  of  the  pri- 

mary.    (Nature,  XXI.,  235-7,  Jan.  8,  1880;  Phil  Trans.,  1879,) 

VI.  Confirmations  of  these  Deductions. 

1.  The  evidences  of  former  high  temperature  in  the  earth.    (Lect. 

II.) 

2.  The  community  of  conditions  in  the  solar  system. 
3   The  necessary  action  of  physical  forces. 

4.  The  present  existence  of  the  assumed  fire-mist  condition. 

5.  The  present  existence  of  the  ring  condition. 
(1.)  In  certain  nebulae.    (Lecture  XLIII.) 

(2.)  In  the  Saturnian  system. 

6.  The  experiment  of  Plateau.     (Taylor's  Scientific  Memoirs,    Nov., 

1844;   Vestiges  of  Creation,  p.  14.) 

7.  The  agreement  of  the  cosmic  mechanism  with  the  requirements 

of  the  theory. 

8.  The  present  conditions  of  Jupiter,  the  sun  and  the  moon. 


—  80  — 

9.  The  exterior  planets  generally  the  larger  and  the  less  dense. 
10.  The  absence  of  any  fatal  conflicts  with  facts. 

VII.  Difficulties  of  the  Nebular  theory  as  enunciated  by  Lap- 
lace. (D.  Kirkwood,  P.  A.  Phil  Soc.,  xviii.,  324-6,  Sep.  19,  1879; 
Monthly  Notices  Roy.  Astron.  Soc.,  Jan,  1869.  Comp.  Slaughter: 
The  Modern  Genesis,  1876,  and  the  author  of  The  Plurality  of 
Worlds,  ch.  vii.,  Am.  ed.,  1854. 

1.  Does  not  clearly  explain  breadth  of  intervals  between  planetary 

orbits.  (Newcomb :  Pop.  Astron.,  498.)  —  Suggestion  that  the 
plants  may  be  nearly  of  the  same  age.  (Newcomb,  498-9,  513.) 

2.  Time  required  for  spheration  of  a  ring  extravagantly  large. 

3.  Hence,  formation  of  satellites  before  cooling  involved  in  difficulty. 

4.  Period  of  nebular  rotation  decreasing  as  square  of  radius,  (t :  V  :: 

r2  :  r/2),  the  periods  of  the  planets,  (t :  V  ::  rjj :  r'f,  by  Kepler's 
third  law)  are  too  long.  —  This  difficulty  removed  by  sup- 
posing the  peripheral  portion  rotated  more  rapidly  than  the  in- 
terior, and  thus  suffered  retardation. 

5.  The  asteroids  together  (as  far  as  known)  only  \  the  earth's  mass, 

or  1-1200  that  of  Jupiter,  while  Mars  is  also  smaller  than  the 
earth.  —  But  a  portion  of  the  asteroids  may  have  been  pre- 
cipitated into  the  solar  mass  again,before  the  latter  had  shrunken 
to  dimensions  sufficiently  within  the  perihelion  position  of  the 
asteroidal  mass.  So  of  Mars.  (Kirkwood,  A.  J.  S.,  III.  i.,  71.) 

6.  General  agreement  of  opinion,  nevertheless,  in  some  kind  of  a 

nebular  origin,  with  accompaniment  of  rotation.  (David  Trow- 
bridge,  A.  J.  S.,  Nov.,  1864  ;  Ennis  :  Origin  of  the  Stars;  Pierce,  in 
Agassiz'  Contributions  to  Nat.  His.  U.  S.) 

XLI.  IMPLICATIONS  OP  THE  NEBULAR  THEORY. 

I.  Exclusions. 
L  It  is  not,  as  here  contemplated,  a  theory  of  the  evolution  of  the 

universe. 
/  2.  It  does  not  involve  the  comets,  ao  tho  Laplaccgrr  theory  did. 

3.  It  does  not  deny  an  antecedent  history  for  the  fire-mist. 

4.  It  does  not  profess  to  discover  the  origin  of  things,  but  only  a 

stadium  in  material  history. 

(1)  Its  starting  point  postulates  matter  and  force. 

(2)  It  leaves  us  to  search  still  for  the  origin  of  these. 

(3)  It  affirms  nothing  concerning  the  nature  of  matter  and  force. 

5.  It  does  not  deny  the  existence  of  plan  and  purpose  in  the  system 

of  cosmic  evolution. 

6.  The  truth  of  the  theory  can  be  tested  only  by  scientific  evidence. 


—  81  — 

II.  All  the  bodies  of  our  System  pass  the  same  succession  of 

Phases.    (W.  Geology  of  the  Stars;    Ennis  :    Origin  of  the  Stars; 
Meunier :  Le  Oiel  geologique). 

1.  The  history  of  each  of  these  bodies  a  history  of  cooling. 

2.  The  phase  reached  at  any  epoch  determined  by  the  age  and  the 

mass  and  volume  of  the  body. 
/  (1)  Temperature  of  the  Sun,  (J.  H.  Lane,  A.  J.  S.,  II.  1,  57) : 

Secchi,  10,000,000°C,  (A.  J.  S.,  III.  iii,  239) ;  —  Ericsson,  4,036,000°,  (Nature, 
v.  344,  Apr.  25, 1872;  A.  J.  S.,  III.  iv.  152-5).  —  Zollner,  400,000°.  —  Sporer, 
27,000°  C.  —  Dewar,  16,000°,  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  Edinb.),vii,  697  ;  A.  J.  S., 
Ill,  v.  153).  —  W.  Thomson,  14,000°,  (Comp.  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ii,  286).  — 
Faye,  3,000°  to  10.000°,  ( Comptes  Rendus).  —  Vicaire,  3,000°  C.,  (Comptes 
Rendus).  —  Deville,  2,500  to  2,800°  C,  ( Comptes  Rend.).  —  Pouillet 
1,461°  to  to  1,761°  C. 

(2)  The  Earth  has  reached  the  habitable  condition. 

(3)  The  Moon  has  passed  this  condition.    —    The  Earth's  mass  being  84  times  that 
of  the  Moon,  it  had  84  times  as  much  heat.    —    Its  surface  being  13.4  times  as 
great  it  radiatad  13.4  times  as  fast.     —     Hence  the  moon  cooled  6<4  times  as 
fast,  and  each  of  its  stages  endured  4-25  as  long  as  the  earth's  corresponding 
stage.  (Frankland:    Proc.  Roy.  Ins..  iv,  175;  Guillemin:    The  Heavens,  143 ; 
Meunier :  Le  del  geol.}. 

(4)  Mars  must  be  in  a  state  of  senescence.    —    Both  older  and  smaller  than  the 
Earth. 

(5)  Venus  cannot  have  reached  the  habitable  stage.     —     Intensity  of  solar  heat 

retards  its  cooling  and  dissipates  the  supply  of  water.     —     The  same  with 
Mercury. 

(6)  Jupiter  lingers  in  the  stormy  stage.     —     Enveloped  in  aqueous  vapor.    — 
Bulk  overesti.-iated,  and  hence  density  underestimated,  being  placed  at  one- 
fourth  that  of  the  earth.    —    Indications  of  inherent  luminosity. 

(7)  The  Saturnian  system  perpetuates  the  annular  phase.      —      The  rings  neither 
solid  nor  fluid.    (Pierce,       ).    —    They  seem  to  be  of  the  nature  of  dust. 

^\  3.  The  Sun's  physical  constitution.     (Newcomb  :  Popular  Astronomy, 
237-82;  Secchi  :  Le  Soleil ;  S  P.  Langl-y,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  vii,  37;  ix, 
192 ;  x,  459 ;  W.  A.  Norton,  A.  J.  S,  111,  i,  395. 
(1)  As  old  as  Neptu'ie,  but  less  cooled  in  consequence  of  its  great  mass.      —      Will 

be  as  dense  as  the  earth  in  12,000,000  years.    (Newcomb,  573). 
(2;  Internal  solar  activities  arising  from  the  cooling  process.       —       Spots.       — 

Prominences,    -i    Hydrogen  flames.    — -*  Corona. 
4.  The  Cosmical  Archetype. 

III.  Other  Worlds  Habitable.     (Brewster:   More  Worlds  than  One; 

Proctor  :  Other  Worlds  than  Ours ;  C.  Flammariou  :La  Pluratite  des 
Mondes  Habites,  8vo.,  1864 ;  Les  Mondes  imaginaires  et  let  Mondes 
reels,8vo.,  1865  ;  Fontenelle  :  Dialogues  on  the  Plurality  of  Worlds, 
1686,  2d  ed.  1719.  Also,  Christian  Huygens:  Cosmothereos,  sive  de 
Terris  Ccelestibus,  earumque  ornatu,  conjecture.  Huygenii  Opera 
torn,  ii,  645-722,  Eng.  trans.,  The  Celestial  Worlds  discovered,  or 
Conjectures  concerning  the  Inhabitants,  Plants  and  Productions  of  the 
Worlds  in  the  Planets,  1698,  2d  ed.  1722,  Giordano  Bruno: 
G 


Universo  e  Mondi  innumerabili ;  Chalmers:  Astronomical  Dis- 
courses, Disc.  IV;  Bentley:  Boyle  Lectures,  Lect.  viii,  ed.  1724,  p. 
298  seq ;  Laplace :  Sys.  du  Monde,  liv.  5me.,  ch.  vi ;  Derham : 
Astrotheology,  3d  ed.  1717,  pp.  xlvii,  liii ;  liv). 

1.  Each  planet  of  our  system  passes  a  habitable  stage.      —     Terres- 

trial conditions  reproduced  on  other  planets. 

2.  Climates  and  supposed  vegetation  of  Mars. 

3.  Some  of  the  larger  satellites  possibly  habitable. 

4.  Planets  in  many  other  systems  may  have  attained  the  habitable 

stage. 

5.  Nature's  economy  of  habitable  conditions. 

6.  Habitability  for  peculiar  beings  may  exist  where  we  cannot  ex- 

pect it.  (Brewster:  More  Worlds  than  One;  R.  Owen:  On  the 
Nature  of  Limbs,  1849,  Lond.,  83,  84.  Compare  Newton  :  Optics, 
ed.  1721,  378,  379  ;  Jules  Boiteau :  Letters  to  a  Materialist  on  the 
Plurality  of  Inhabited  Worlds;  The  Catholic  World,  Feb.  1880,665- 
75  from  Revue  des  Questions  Scientifiques,  July,  1877). 

7.  Some  noteworthy  conjectures. 

(1)  D.  Lardner  argued  the  habitability  of  the  moon  and  all  the  planets.     (Museum 
of  Science  and  Art,  vol  i.) 

(2)  D.  Brewster  advances  similar  opinions.    (More  Worlds  than  One). 

(3)  W.  Herschel  thought  the  solar  spots  the  highest  points  (some  600  miles  high)  of 
a  cool  and  habitable  globe.    —     The  solar  heat  attempered  "  in  some  mysteri- 
ous way."    —    Earlier  advocates  of  this  opinion.   (Pres.  Forbes  :  Reflections  on 
the  Sources  of  Incredulity  with  regard  to  Religion,  Edinb.,  1750,  p.  3 ;  Dr.  Elliot, 
Edinb.  Encyc.,  Art.  Astron.,  vol.  ii,  p.  616 ;  Gentlemen's  Magazine,  1787,  636.    Also 
works  of  Flammarion,  Jean  Reynaud,  Babinet,  Pioger. 

8.  Habitability  of  other  worlds  denied   on    theological  grounds. 
Maxwell :  (Plurality  of  Worlds,  1820,  who  holds  that  the  New- 
tonian philosophy  contains  principles  "  which  lie  at  the  founda- 
tion of  all  atheistical  systems)." 

9.  Denied  on  scientific  grounds.     (Whewell :    Of  the  Plurality    of 

Worlds). 

IV.  Many  other  "Worlds  Uninhabitable.    (Faye  :  Annaire  du  Bu- 
reau des  Longitudes ;  Newcomb :  Popular  Astron.,  516-19). 

1.  Most  worlds  probably  too  old  or  too  recent  for  habitability.      — 

At  least  in  unsuitable  stages  of  development. 

2.  All  in  the  solar  stage  too  intensely  heated. 

3.  Question  concerning  our  remoter  planets. 

(1)  Light  and  heat  of  Neptune  l-900th  of  what  we  enjoy.    —     The  sun  the  size  of 
Jupiter  to  us. 

(2)  Density  of  Jupiter  stated  st  one-fourth  that  of  the  earth.    —    A  mere  globe  of 
water.    —    But  the  weight  of  bodies  two  and  one-half  times  as  great.    —  The 
density  probably  underestimated. 

(3)  Saturn  and  his  dust-like  rings. 


—  83  — 

V.  Some  Oosmical  Finalities. 

1.  Total   refrigeration.    (Lyell:  Prin.,129;  Fourier:  On  the  Tempera- 

ture [of  the  Terrestrial  Globe  and  the  Planetary  Spaces,  Annales  de 
Chemie  et  de  Physique,  tome  xxviii,  136,  Oct.  1824). 

(1)  A  body  is  hot  only  because  It  has  not  had  sufficient  time  to  cool.    —    The  lava 

of  Jorullo  was  still  ignited  after  twenty-one  years.    —   That  of  Aetna,  from 
1787  to  1830,  while  unmelted  snow  remained  beneath.    Lyeli;:  (Princ.,  396). 

(2)  No  assignable  cause  for  permanent  arrest  of  planetary  cooling.     —     The  heat 
radiated  mostly  lost  to  our  system.    (Fourier,  ut  sup).    —  Dissipation  of  energy 
of  a  system.    (Sir  W.  Thomson.    —    This  compatible  with  a  total  conservation 
of  energy. 

2.  How  uninhabibility  may  result. 

(1)  From  attainment  of  too  low  a  temperature.    (W.,  ch.  xxxviii.) 

(2)  From  the  absorption  of  all  water  and  air.    (L.  Saemann  as  in  Lect.  XL;  S. 
Meunier  :  Le  del  geol. ;  W.,  Qeol.  "of  the  Stars). 

(a)  The  volume  of  the  ocean  is  only  .0042  that  of  the  earth. 

(b)  Ordinary  minerals  will  absorb  .0127  per  cent,  of  water.  (Durocher:  Butt. 

Geol.  Soc.  France,  II,  x,  431.  On  the  porosity  of  rocks  see  Hunt :  Chem.  and 
Geol.  Ess.,  164;  Delesse:  Butt.  Geol.  Soc.  France,  II,  xix,  64:  Sorby,  Q.  J. 
Geol.  Soc.,  xiv,  1858, 329, 453 ;  D.  Brewster :  Ann.  de  Chem.  et  de  Phys.,  xxi, 
1822,182;  Poggendorff's  Annalen,  vii,  493).  —  Hence  the  cooled  earth 
would  readily  absorb  all  the  water  of  the  oceans,  and  two-thirds  of  its 
capacity  would  remain  unfilled, 

(c)  The  volume  of  the  air  (reduced  to  surface  density)  is  .0037  that  of  the  earth. 

(Saemann,  ut  sup).  —  Hence  the  cooled  earth  would  absorb  the  atmos- 
phere as  well  as  the  ocean,  and  if  as  compact  as  average  rocks,  would  leave 
five-thirteenths  of  its  pores  still  unsaturated. 

(3)  The  water  and  atmosphere  of  the  moon  thus  absorbed.    (Ssemann,  ut  sup. ;  W., 
Geol.  of  the  Stars;   Guillemin:    The  Heavens,  143;    Meunier,  ut  sup).    —    In 
cool'ng  through  180°,  would  create  cellular  space  equal  to  fourteen  and  a  half 
millions  of  cubic  miles.  (Frankland :  Proc.  Roy.  Inst.,  iv,  175).    —    Supposed 
recent  changes  on  moon's  surface.    (Birt:  A.  J.S.,UI,  iv,  326). 

XLII.    COSMICAL  DUST. 

A.  E.  Nordenskjold,  On  the  Cosmical  Dust  which  falls  to  the  Earth  with  atmos- 
pheric preciptation,  Poggendorff's  Annalen,  cli,  154, 1874;  A.  J.  S.,  HI,  ix,  145-6;  H.  A. 
Newton,  On  Shooting  Stars,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xxxix,  1S3-207 ;  ib,  xliii,  285 :  Sehiaparelli,  Bol- 
letino  Meteorologico  Home,  v,  Nos.  8, 10,  11, 12,  vi,  No.  2,  abstract,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xliii,  291-9. 

I.  Enlargement  of  the  scope  of  our  speculations. 

1.  Other  systems  of  worlds  to  be  accounted  for. 

2.  Inquiries  as  to  older  conditions  and  other  evolutions. 

3.  Gathering  dust.  Examples.      —      Whence  does  it  come? 

II.  Meteors  (Newton,  as  above  ;)  D.  Kirkwood :  A  Treatise  on  Shooting 
Stars,  Fire-balls  and  Aerolites,  Phil.,  1867 ;  Newcomb,  Eastman  and 
Harkness,   Observations   and   Discussions  of  the    November  Meteors, 
1867,  Washington,  8vo. ;  40  pp,  1867. 


—  84  — 

1.  The  phenomena  (Newton,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xli,  58,  192,  273,  xlii,  429, 
xliii,  78,  276,  xliv,  426,  xlv,  78,  225,  xlvii,  118,  399,  xlix,  244  ;  E. 
C.  Herrick,  A.  J.  S.  II,  xxxi,  136,  xxxii,  294,  xxxiii,  147,  148, 
290,  291). 

X  2.  Numbers.       —       7£  millions  in  24  hours  to  the  naked  eye,  (New- 
ton, A.  J.  S.,  II,  xxix,  198).         -      400  millions  to  telescope,  (Ib. 
p.  201).      —      Arago  says  240  millions  in  3  hours  in  Novem- 
ber, 1833. 
3.  Contribution  of  matter  to  the  earth.       —       28£  tons  daily.       — 

10,000  tons  yearly.      —     104  million  tons  in  10,000  years. 
^  4.  Velocity  14  to  107  miles  per  second.       —     '  Meet  the  earth. 

^  Consequences  of  penetrating  the  earth's  atmosphere.  —  Com- 
posed of  terrestrial  substances,  (J.  L.  Smith :  Mineralogy  and 
Chemistry  ;  Meunier :  Le  del  geol). 

,  5.  Meteoric  Swarms  and  Orbits.  (H.  A.  Newton,  as  above;  Schia- 
parelli,  as  above.  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  v,  482 ;  Entwurf  einer  Astronom- 
itchen  Theorie  der  Sternschnuppen ;  Proctor :  Other  World  than 
Ours;  D.  Kirkwood:  Comets  and  Meteors,  1873. 

(1)  August  orbit  fifty  times  the  diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit. 

(2)  November  orbit  33J4  years  and  ten  times  the  diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit. 
(Newton,  as  above;  Sir  William  Thomson,  Brit.  Assoc.,  Edinb.;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ii, 
289,  October  1871). 

X3)  A  hundred  other  meteoric  orbits  more  or  less  known.    (Kirkwood,  A.  J.  S., 
Ill.vi  392. 

6.  Space  filled  with  moving  meteoroids  (Newton). 
m.  Zodiacal  Light.    (Newcomb :  Pop.  Astron.  405-6). 

1.  The  Phenomena. 

2.  Supposed  explanation. 

IV.  Comets.  (Newcomb:  Pop.  Astron.  365-84,  398-405  ;  W.  Thomson, 
A.  J.  S.  Ill,  ii,  289;  Zollner :  Ueber  die  Natur  der  Cometen,  Leip- 
zig, 1872,  8vo.,  pp.  c,  523;  A.  J.  S-,  III,  iii,  476;  De  la  Kue,  A.  J. 
S.,  Ill,  iv,  324 ;  J.  C.  Watson:  Treatise  on  Comets. 

1.  Conglomeration  of  cosmical  dust.  The  matter  thought  by 

W.  Herschel  to  be  derived  'from  nebulae.  (Phil.  Trans.,  1812, 
144). 

2.  Not  natives  of  our  system.     —      Their  erratic  movements. 

3.  Periods  of  comets  3£  to  76,  and  2,000  and  even  100,000  years. 

4.  Tenuity  of  their  substance. 

5.  Identification  with   meteoric  swarms.     (Newcomb :  Pop.  Astron., 

391-8 ;  H.  A.  Newton,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xxxii,  449 ;  Schiaparelli  ut 
tup.,  and  Monthly  Notices,  Feb.  1875 ;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ix,  406.  Comp. 
A.  W.  Wright,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ix,  459,  x,  44;  J.  W  Mallet,  A.  J.  S., 
Ill,  x,  206-7). 


—  85  — 

(1)  Comet  of  1862  III  identified  with  August  swarm.      (Newton,  Schiaparelli, 
Oppolzer,  Schellen:  Spectralanalyse,  trans.,  600). 

(2)  Comet  of  1866 II.  (Tempers)  identified  with  November  swarm.    (Schiaparelli, 
Les  Mondes,  xiii,  501,  March  28.  1867;  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xliv,  129). 

(3)  Biela's  lost  comet  identified  with  a  train  intercepted  by  the  earth,  November 
27, 1872.    (But  compare  Nature,  xxi,  240,  Jan.  8, 1880. 

(4)  A  meteoric  ring  only  a  degenerated  Icome  t.    —    Method  of  gathering  cosmical 
matter  into  globes. 

V.  Saturnian  Rings. 

1.  Their  physical  phenomena. 

2.  Their  physical  constitution. 

VI.  Nebulae.    (Newcomb :   Pop.   Astron.  444-52 ;  Sir  Wm.  Herschel, 

Phil.  Trans.,  1784,  1811,  1814). 

1.  Description.    —    Discovery.    —    Early  opinions. 

2.  So-called  "  resolvable  nebulae." 

3.  True  nebulae  irresolvable.     —     Stubborn  irresolvability  of  many 

nebulae. 

4.  The  spectroscope.     (Schellen  :  Spectralanalyse,  also  Amer.  transl. ; 

Half  Hour  Recreations  in  Science,  Nos.  3  and  4,  Boston ;  Eoscoe  : 
Spectrum  Analysis,  Lorid.,  2d.  ed.,  1870,  8vo.,  pp.  404).  —  Three 
fundamental  principles  of  its  action.  —  Application  to  neb- 
ulae. —  The  spectra  perhaps  indicate  a  state  of  dissociation. 
Lockyer's  conclusions  touching  the  compound  nature  of  so- 
called  elements.  (Nature). 

SYNOPTICAL  VIEW  OF  SPECTROSCOPIC  PHENOMENA. 
DESIGNATION  OP  SPECTRUM.  CONDITION  OF  MATTER. 


Continuous  spectrum 


Incandescent  Solid  or  Liquid. 
(Drummond  Light.) 


Bright-line  spectrum=  ~\  |j    (  Incandescent  Gas  or  Vapor. 
Discontinuous  spectrum=  (Electric  Light ;  Solar  promi- 

Gas  spectrum.  J  n]     (.     nences ;  Irresolvable  nebulae). 

Dark-line  spectrum=  ^i  g  >  (  Incandescent  Solid  or   Liquid 

Absorption  spectrum,  I  M     I      shinging  through  gas  or  va- 
Reversed  spectrum  or  I      por  of  lower  temperature. 

Compound  spectrum.  J  I     (Sun;  Fixed  Stars). 

5.  Forms  of  Nebulae. 

(li  Amorphous.     (Newcomb,  446,  450-1;   Schellen:  Spec.  Anal,  trans.,  534,  etc). 
—     Great  Nebula  in  Orion.    (Nature,  22  Nov.  1877,  67,  and  8  July,  1878,  313. 

(2)  Sickle-shaped.    (Schellen,  op.  dt,  537). 

(3)  Spiral.    (Schellen,  op.  dt,  537). 

(4)  Spiro-annular.    (Schellen,  op.  dt,  540,  541). 

(5)  Planetary.    (Schellen,  op.  dt,  544, 558). 

(6)  Annular.    (Newcomb,  op.  dt,  448;  Schellen,  540, 555,  542,  also  figs.,  194, 195). 


—  86  — 

(7)  Stellar.    (Schellen,  553).    —    Compare  Donati's  comet  1858.    (Watson,  ; 

Newcomb,  868 ;  Schellen,  559). 

(8)  Sir  Wm.  Herschel's  suggestions : — That  amorphous,  planetary,  annular  and 
stellar  nebulae  are  successive  stages  in  nebular  life.    (Phil.  Trans.,  1811,  1814). 
—     Ultimate  condensation  to  a  star  expected.    ( IV).     —     That  outlying  por- 
tions condense  into  planets.    (J&). 

VII.  General  Cosmical  Theory. 

1.  Original  world-stuff  pervading  space.      —       Suggested  to  be  the 

ether.     (Me Vicar :  Sketch  of  a  Philosophy  ;  Saigey :  The  Unity  of 
Nat.  Phenom). 

2.  Gravitational  gathering  of  cosmical  dust.         —         Meteoroidal, 

cometary  and  nebular  accumulations. 

3.  Evolutions  of  nebulae.      —       Collisiona       —       Heat,  light,  and 

rotation  resulting. 

XLIIL   NEBULAR  LIFE. 

Sir  William  Herschel:  Astronomical  Observations  relating  to  the  Constructi.  n  of  the 
Heavens,  arranged  for  the  purpose  of  a  critical  (xamination,  the  result  of  which  appears  to 
throw  some  new  Light  upon  the  Organization  of  the  celestial  Bodies,  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions,ll811,  p.  269,  and  1814,  p.  248.  See,  also,  Philosophical  Transactions,  1784.  Synop- 
sis of  Sir  W.  Herschel's  researches  in  Newcomb's  Astronomy,  pp.  465-74,  495,  and  fuller 
account  in  Arago's  Analyse  des  Travaux  de  Sir  William  HerscJiel  in  Annuaire  du  Bureau 
des  Longitudes,  142. 

Cleveland  Abbe :  The  "  very  much  extended  "  Nebulae  of  Sir  John  Herschel's  Gen- 
eral Catalogue,  A.  J.  S-,  III,  ix,  42-6. 

I.  Isolation  and  Sources  of  Nebulae. 

1.  Comparative  freedom  of  Nebulae  from  perturbations  from  our  sys- 

tem or  our  firmament. 

2.  The  primitive  materials  of  Nebulae  disseminated  and  cold.     — 

The  materials  not  all  involved  in  any  evolution  dating  from  any 
specific  beginning.    --    Cosmical  beginnings  at  all  times. 

3.  Process  of  conglomeration.    (Compare  Ennis :  Origin  of  the  Stars, 

sec.  xvi). 

II.  Origin  of  Nebular  Heat. 

1.  Theory  of  Nebular   incandescence  from  condensation.     (Comp. 

Newcomb,  Astron.,  507, 513).    -        Limits  of  applicability  of  this 
theory. 

2.  Nebular  amorphism  an  indication  of  nebular  unions. 

(1)  Suggested  by  our  theory. 

(2)  Amorphism  probably  a  temporary  stage.     —     Observed  changes  in  nebulae. 
(Newcomb :  Pop.  Astron.,  44'.'.    Compare  Huggins :    On  Motions  ofNebulse,  Proc. 
Roy.  Soc.,  1874 ;  abstr.  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  xiii,  75-7). 

(a)  The  Nebula  in  Orion.    —    Changes  from  Huygens'  time  to  W.  Herschel's. 

(Herschel:  Phil.  Trans..  1811;   Struve:    ;   Holden:  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  xi, 

360). 


—  87  — 

(6)  The  Trifld  Nebula,  M.  20.    (Holden:   A.  J.  S.,III,  xiv,  433-58,  Dec.  1777; 
Newcomb:  Astron.,  449-50). 

(c)  The  Omega  Nebula,  H.  2008.     (Holden:   A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  xi,  341-61,  May,  1876  ; 
Newcomb :  Astron.,  450). 

(d)  The  Magellanic  Clouds.    (Sir  W.  Herschel,  Phil.  Tr«ns.,  1811). 

(3)  Apparent  changelessness  of  most  nebulae  due  to  their  enormous  magnitudes  and 

distances. 

3.  The  impact  of  nebulae  must  generate  enormous  heat.  --  This 
theory,  since  first  propounded,  confirmed  by  James  Croll.  (Na- 
ture, Jan.  1878). 

III.  Origin  of  Nebular  Rotation. 

1.  This  an  incident  of  collision.    —    The  motion  of  two  sole  bodies 

in  space.    —    The  motion  of  three  bodies  in  space. 

(1)  FIRST  CASK. — The  centers  of  gravity  of  two  nebulas  move  toward  one  point  with  such 
velocities  as  to  reach  it  simultaneously. 

(a)  First  sub-case.—  When  the  centres  of  gravity  move  along  one  straight  line. 
(6)  Second  sub-case. —  When  the  centers  tf  gravity  do  not  move  along  one  straight 
line. 

(2)  SECOND  CASE. — The  centers  of  gravity  move  toward  each  other  with  such  velocities  as 

to  pass  it  successively. 

(a)  When  the  centers  of  gravity  lie  in  one  straight  line. 

(b)  When  the  centres  of  gravity  do  not  lie  in  one  straight  line. 

2.  Rotation  also  a  consequence  of  superficial  currents  arising  from 

the  passage  from  an  amorphous  to  a  spherical  figure.  (Ennis  : 
Origin  of  the  Stars,  sec.  xvii ;  On  the  Necessity  of  Nebular  Rotation, 
P.  A.  N.  S.,  Phil.,  1867).  —  How  currents  would  be  established. 
—  Retardation  by  friction  with  the  non-rotating  interior.  — 
Friction  progressively  augmented  as  density  of  interior  in- 
creases. 

IV.  Origin  of  Regular  Nebular  Forms. 

1.  The  Spiral  Form  may  arise  from  the  co-action  of  an  etherial  me- 

dium in  a  non-homogeneous  nebula. 

2.  The  Sickle  Form  results  apparently  from  the  orbital  motion  of  a 

nebulous  body  in  a  resisting  medium.     —    Illustration. 

3.  The  Spheroidal  Form  arises  in  a  homogeneous  nebula,  or  from 

progressive  homogeneity  in  a  spiral  nebula.  -  -  The  nebular 
spheroid  the  normal  form. 

V.  Differentiation  of  Nebulae. 

1.  Non-rotating  nebulae. 

(1)  By  a  process  of  coagulation. 

(2)  By  condensation  about  separate  centers. 

(3)  These  are  possible  origins  of  discontinuous  nebulae.     —     A  state  of  stellation. 
—    Rotation  of  the  separate  masses  probable. 

2.  Rotating  Nebulae.    (Comp.,  Lect  XL,  II). 
(1)  Annulation. 


—  88  — 

(a)  The  nucleus  may  separate  from  the  ring.    —    Example,  the  Stellar  Nebu- 
la H.  450. 

(6)  The  nucleus  may  adhere  to  the  ring.     —     Example,  the  Annular  Nebula 

in  the  Lyre.  (Schellen:  Sped.  Anal.,  555). 
(2)  Spheration  of  annuli.    (Comp.  Lect.  XL,  III). 

(a)  By  lateral  loading  on  one  or  more  sides. 

(6)  By  perturbative  rupture. 

3.  Each  constituent  mass  the  mother  of  a  solar  system.    —    The 

Nebula  the  mother  of  a  Firmament. 

4.  Sublimity  of  these  conceptions. 

XLIV.  OROGENY. 

A  J.  D.  DANA:  On  the  Origin  of  Jlfau.nta.ins,  A.  J.  8.,  Ill,  T.  347,  criticism  of  J.  Ha'l's 
theory;  see,  also,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xliii,  210.  On  Same  Results  of  the  Earth's  Contraction  from 
Cooling,  including  a  discussion  of  the  Origin  of  Mountains  and  the  Nature  of,  the  Earth's  Inte- 
rior :  Part  I,  Review  of  Opinions,  and  Theory  of  Mountain  Origin,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  v.  423-43, 
June,  1873 ;  Part  II:  Condition  of  the  Earth's  Interior  and  Connection  of  Facts  uriih  Mountain- 
making,  and  Part  III,  Metamorphism,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  vi,  6-14 ;  Part  IV:  Igneous  Ejections,  ib., 
vi,  104-6,  Aug.  1873 ;  Part  V:  Formation  of  Continental  Plateaux  and  Ocean-depressions,  ib., 
vi,  161-72,  Sept.,  18  3.  Earlier  papers,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  ii,  385 ;  iii.  94  176,  380 ;  iv,  88 ;  vii,  379 ; 
xxii,  305.  335 ;  also,  Geology  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition. 

JAMES  HALL:  Palsentology  of  New  York,  iii.,  Introduction. 

O.  FISHER:  On  the  Elevation  of  Mountain  \Chains  by  Lateral  Pressure,  etc.  Trans. 
Camb.  Phil.  Soc.,  xi,  pt.  iii,  1869;  On  Ekvation  and  Subsidence,  Phil.  Mag.,  1872 ;  On  the 
Formation  of  Mountains,  and  the  Hypothesis  of  a  Liquid  Substratum  beneath  the  Earth's  Crust. 
Proc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc.,  Feb.  22, 1875 ;  Mountain-making :  The  Inequalities  of  the  Earth's  Sur- 
face viewed  in  connection  vrith  Secular  Cooling,  Camb.  Phil.  Trans.,  xii,  pt.  ii,  abstr.  A.  J.  S., 
x,  380-9. 

J.  D.  WHITNEY  :  Mountain  Building. 

T.  S.  HUNT:  Chemical  and  Geological  Essays,  especially, On  Some  Points  in  Dy- 
namical Geology,  (1858),  pp.  70-9;  Origin  of  Mountains,  (186  i),  pp.  49-58  ;  Geognosy  of  the 
Appalachians,  and  the  Origin  of  Crystalline  Rocks  (1871),  pp.  239-327  ;  Geology  of  the 
Alps,  (1872),  pp.  328-48;  Criticism  of  Leconte>s  Views,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  v.,j264-70. 

SC^JOSEPH  LECONTE  :  Elementary  Geology,  90-132,  252-60 ;  A  Theory  of  the  formation 
of  the  Great  Features  of  the  Earth's  Surface,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  iv,  345  and  460,  Nov.  and  Dec., 
1872,  v,  156;  Reply  to  Hunt's  Criticisms,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  v.  448,  June,  1873;  On  the  Great 
Lava  Flood  of  the  West,  and  on  the  Structure  and  Ageofthe  Cascade  Mountains,  A.  J.S., 
III,  yii,  167,  259,  March  and  Apr.,  1874. 

POULETT  SCROPE,  Geological  Magazine,  vi,  512 ;  F.  W.  HTJTTON,  Mountains,  Geol. 
Mag. ;  Elevation  of  Mountains  and  Volcanic  Theories,  Nature,  ix,  61-2 ;  C.  E.  DUTTON  :  A 
Criticism  upon  the  Contractional  Hypothesis,  A.  J.  S.,  in,  viii,  112-23.  Aug.  1874  ;  also, 
Penn  Monthly,M.&<t  andA  June.  1876 ;  KABL  V.  SEEBACH  :  Das  Mitteldeutsche  Erdbeben, 
von  6  Marz,  1872,  reviewed»by  B.  K.EMERSON  in  A.  J.  S.,III,viii.  405-12 ;  FRIEDRICH  PFAFF: 
Der  Mechanismus  der  Gebirgsbildung,  mit  75  Holzsch.,  8vo.,  1879. 

On  the  expansibility  of  rocks  by  heat,  see  DANA  :  Manual,  700 ;  TOTTEN  :  A.  J.  S., 
I,  xxii,  136 ;  ADIE  :  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinb. ;  BABBAGE,  Ninth  Bridgewater  Treatise, 
App.  H ;  F.  PFAFF,  op.  cit.  and  A.  J.  S.,  III.  x,  235.  On  contraction  in  passing  from  the 
liquid  to  the  glassy  and  the  stony  states^see  MALLET,  Trans,  Roy.  Soc.,  1872;  DELESSE 
Bull.  Soc.geol.  de  France,  II,  iv,  1380, 1847. 

See  also  references  under  Lectures  XXIV,  XXVI,  XXVIII  and  XXXVIII. 


I.  Theory  of  Upheaval  by  Subterranean  Forces.    (Studer :  Oe- 

ologie  der  Schweiz). 

1.  Steam,  gases,  molten  matter  or  other  agents.   (Strabo  :  Geographia, 

lib.  vi).  —  Chemical  explanation.  (Sir  H.  Davy,  etc. ;  W.  Hop- 
kins, Report  Brit.  Assoc.,  1848  ;  Lect.  XXXVIII). 

2.  Explanation  inadequate.   (Suess:  Die  Enstehung  der  Alpen,  165pp., 

Wien,  1875,  abstr.  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  x,  446-51 ).  •  These  forces  too 
local,  and  not  sustaining.  —  Mountains  do  not  rest  on  aeriform 
foundations.  (D.,  739).  —  Nor  are  they  upheld  by  cores  of 
igneous  rocks.  (Nature,  xxi,  177,  25  Dec.  1879).  —  Nor  is  the 
maximum  pressure  of  stt  am  adequate  to  elevate  the  crust,  or  a 
column  of  lava  in  a  volcano.  (Whitney,  N.  Amer.  Rev.,  cxiii, 
255). 

3.  Laccolitic  mountains  a  quasi-exception.     (G  K.  Gilbert :  Rep.  on 

the  Geol.  of  the  Henry  Mts.,  Powell  Surv.,  1877  ;  Nature,  xxi,  177) 
—  Bubbles  or  blisters  raised  by  intrusive  trachytes. 

II.  Theory  of  "Wrinkling  by  Lateral  Pressure.     (Dana,  ut  sup., 

and  Man.,  735,  745  ;  Descartes  ;  Principes  de  la  Philos.,  pt.  iv,  \  42. 

1.  Cause  of  incipient  wrinkles  in  the  earth's  crust.    —    Attributable 

to  lateral  pressure.  —  Effects  observed  in  motion  of  rocks  in 
quarries.  (W.  H.  Niles,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  iii,  222). 

2.  Tendency  to  continual  subsequent  development. 

(1)  Their  crests  become  lines  of  weakness. 

(2)  Lateral  pressure  would  continue  to  fold  in  the  same  direction. 

(3)  Influence  of  deep  ocean  waters.    (Dana).    This  would  tend  to  parallelize 
mountain  ranges  with  continental  shores. 

(4)  Formation  of  continents  and  ocean  basins.  (D.  738). 

3.  The  presence  of  one  fold  would  predispose  to  contiguous  parallel 

folds.  —  Mechanical  illustration.  —  Hence  a  chain  of  par- 
allel ranges. 

4.  The  ocean's  pressure  would  result  in  an  excess  of  thrust  away 

from  the  shore.     (D.  745).    —      Hence  the  folds  might  altitudi- 
nally  incline  continent-ward.    —    Or  might  become  tilted  over. 
-    This  possibility  often  realized.  (Lect.  XXIV,  I,  2,(6) ). 
*  5.  This  theory  fulfills  requirements  of  many  facts.    -  -    But  does  not 
explain   enormous  thickening  of  strata    in    mountain-ranges. 
(Lect.  XXIV,  I,  5).    —    Accepted  so  far  as  it  goes,  but  requires 
to  be  supplemented. 

III.  Theory  of  Wrinkling   by  Mashing  Together.      (L.    252 ; 

Wurtz,  A.  J.  Mining,  25  Jan.  1868,  read   Aug.  I860  ;    Dana,   Mal- 
let, ut  sup. ;  Ramsay,  Addr.  Geol.  Sec,  Brit.  Assoc.,  1866). 
1.  Assumes  all  the  positions  of  the  above  theory. 
H 


—  90  — 

2.  Assumes  also  a  thickening  of  mountain-strata  by  mashing  to- 

gether.  (L.  253). 

3.  The  theory  tends  to  explain  metamorphism  and  igneous  phenom- 

ena.   --    Compression  the  source  of  heat,   (Mallet,  Leconte). 

4.  Mashing  might  also  result  from  lateral   crowding  of  fluid  matter 

thrust  up  under  the  fold.  —  Attended  by  thinning  along  the 
crest  of  the  fold. 

5.  This  theory  explains  the  thickened  strata.     —     But  does  not  ex- 

plain their  more  coarsely  fragmental  character,  and  the  defi- 
ficiency  of  calcareous  constituents. 

6.  The    adequacy   of  secular  cooling   from   shrinkage   denied. 

Shrinkage  insufficient  and  corrugation  too  much  localized. 
(Button,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  viii,  113;  Perm  Monthly,  May  and  June, 
1870).  --  Shrinkage  insufficient  and  frictional  heat  too  much 
diffused.  (Fisher,  Camb.  Phil.  Trans ,  xii,  pt.  ii :  Q.  J.  O.  Soc., 
xxxi,  471-2,  473-6).  —  But  some  shrinkage  is  a  fact,  whatever 
the  cause,  and  great  tangential  strain  hardly  disputable.  (L. 
2(50).  Suggestions  that  the  molten  interior  was  at  first 

combined  with  superheated  water,  and  thus  more  bulky. 
(Fisher,  Camb.  Phil.  Trans ,  xii,  pt.  ii). 

IV.  The  Synclinorium  Theory.  (D.,  748-50,  211-14,  244,251,275, 
305  ;  L.  252-6.  Comp.  King,  40  Par.  i,  731 ;  Hunt,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xxi, 
392,1861;  Chem.and  Geol.  Ess.,  49-58  ;  Vose :  Orographic  GeoL; 
Whitney,  N.  A.  Review,  cxiii,  265). 

1.  Starts  from  the  evidences  of  excessive  sedimentation  along  moun- 

tain axes.     (Hall :  Pal.  N.  Y.,  iii,     Introd. ,  69  seq). 

(1)  These  evidences  generally  admitted  conclusive. 

(2)  Character  of  mountain-sediments  implies  excessive  deposition,  and  proximity 
of  a  continental  shore.     —     Principle  of  distribution  of  sediments.    (Lect. 
VI,  iv.) 

2.  And  recognizes  the  proofs  of  progressive  subsidence  during  accu- 

mulation. 

(1)  Without  subsidence,  the  sea  along  the  axis  of  deposition  would  become  so 
shallowed  that  deposition  would  cease. 

(2)  Subsidence  often  regarded  a  mechanical  effect  of  local  loading  of  the  crust. 

(Hall :  ut  sup.}. 

(3)  But  this  view  untenable.    (Fisher,  Gtograph.  Afaff.,  x,  248).  —    A  belt  of  crust 

yielding  under  a  foot  of  sediments  would  not  uphold  a  mountain  mass.  — 
Subsidence,  in  some  cases,  has  accompanied  unloading,  and  upheaval  has  ac 
companied  loading.  (King :  40  Par.,  537,  732). 

3.  It  admits  whatever  mashing  together  may  have  been  possible. 

4.  It  admits  the  mechanical  origin  of  more  or  less  heat,  as  manifest 

in  the  phenomena  of  vulcanicity. 

5.  And,  finally,  it  recognizes  inherent  internal   heat  as  a  probable 

factor. 


—  91  — 

6.  The  mechanics  of  the  final  uplift  of  a  synclinorium  not  fully  un- 
derstood.    (D.  749;  Leconte). 

(1)  The  synclinorium  seems  to  have  been  a  fact. 

(2)  The  uplift  seems  to  have  been  a  fact.J  (L.  242-4,  255-6).    —     Hall's  theory  does 
not  provide  for  this.    (Dana,  A.  J.  S.) 

(3)  Softening  or  fusion  of  lower  portion  of  synclinorium  a  suggested  condition  of 
upheaval.    (Dana).    —    But  the  very  condition  of  softening  is  the  existence  of 
an  overlying  accumulation,  maintai  ling  the  original  thickness  and  c  nse- 
quent  rigidity. 

(4)  Consideration  of  the  mechanical  conditions  existing  about  a  synclinorium. 

(a)  Structural  arrangement  on  completion  of  the  synclinorium. 

(b)  Structural  arrangement  after  uplift  of  the  synclinoriu-n  into  an  anticlinal. 
(e)  The  problem  is  to  ascertain  the  mechanical  conditions  of  passage  from  the 

one  to  other. 

(rf)  Possibility  of  a  synclinal  mountain-mass  resulting  from  mashing  together 
without  upheaval  of  synclinorium. 

XLIV.  THEORY  OF  CONTINENTAL  GLACIATION. 

L.  AGASSIZ:  Systeme  Glaciare;  JAMES  CROLL:  Climate  and  Time,  12mo.,  577  pp., 
Am.  ed.  1875;  (Criticism  of  this  by  8.  Newcomb,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  xi,  263).  LEHON: 
DHomme  Fossile,  Part  II ;  COL.  DRAYSON  :  Probable  Cause,  Date  and  Duration  of  Gla- 
cial Epoch,  Philosophical  Magazine,  1871,  abstr.  \.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ii,  304. 

I.  Recurrence  of  Phenomena  of  G-laciation.    (Croll,  Climate  and 
Time,  ch.  xviii). 

1.  Summary  of  phenomena  of  last  glaciation. 

2.  Similar  phenomena  of  remoter  date. 

(1)  Worn  and  transported  boulders  in  the  Cambrian.   (Jas.  Thomson,  Brit.  Assoc  , 

1870,  88). 

(2)  Lower  Silurian  indications.    (J.  Carrick  jg.  J.  G.  S.,  v.  10;  Phil.  Mag.,  Apr., 
1865,  289  ;  Geikie :  Great  Ice  Agt,  512  ;  Jukes  :  Manual  of  Geol.,  4J1 ;    Haughton . 
in  McClintock's  Narrative  of  Arctic  Discoveries  ;  £>.  J.  G.  S..  xi,  510. 

(3)  Smoothed  rock-sufaccs  and  shingle  in  Medina  Epoch.    (Hall). 

(4)  Devonian  indications.  (Ramsay,  Reader,  12  Aug.  1865;  Gumming:  History  of 
I.  of  Man,  86;  Selwyn  :  Phys.  Geoff,  and  Geol.  of  Victoria.  1866,  15-16 ;  Taylor 
and  Etheridge,  Geol.  Surv.  Victoria,  Quarter-Sheet  13  NE) 

(f.)  Similar  phenomena  in  the  Permian.  (D.  431 :  Amer.  Nat.,  iv,  560:  Ramsay,  jg. 
J.  G.  Soc.,  xi,  197;  Sutherland,  ^.  J.  G.  Soc.,  xxvi.  514;  Daintree :  Geol. 
Dist.  Ballon,  Victoria.  18G6,  11). 

(6)  In  the  Triassic.    (T.  A.  Conrad  and   H.  Wurtz,  1869 ;    Dana,  A.  J.  S.,  I]  I,  ix, 
315;  Fontaine,  ^4.  J.  S.,  Ill,  xvi,  236). 

(7)  In  the  Jurassic.    (Fontaine,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  xvi.  236).     -         In  the  Upper  Oolite 
of  Scotland.    (Judd,  £.  J.  G.  Soc.,  xxix;  Phil.  Mag.,  xxix,  290). 

(8)  Between  Middle  Cretaceous  and  Lower  Eocene.    (Dawson,  Princeton    Rev. 
March,  1879,  284).     —     In  English  Cretaceous.     (Godwin  Austen,  jg.  J.  G. 
Soc.,  xiv.  262;    Brit.  Assoc.  Rep.,  1857,02;    jg.  J.  <*.  Soc.,  xvi,  327;    Geologist, 
1860,  38). 

(9)  A  cold  period  at  base  of  English  Eocene.    (Nature,  10  July,  1879,  258).    —    The 
Flysch  of  Switzerland.  (Lyell :  Prin). 

(10)  In  the  Miocene.    (G.-istaldi.  Mem.  Acad.  Scl.  Turin,  ILxx). 


—  92  — 

(11)  Croll's  extension  of  the  idea  to  the  Coal  Measures.    (Op.  cit.,  296-8,  and  ch. 
xxvi.) 

II.  Hypothesis  of  passage   through  cold  regions    of  space. 

(Lyell :  Prin,,  127;  Poisson:  Theorie  math,  de  la  chaleur,  Comptes 
Rendus,  30  Jan.  1837;  Agassiz  :  A  Journey  in  Brazil,  399, 425).  - 
Or  that  the  sun  has  experienced  a  diminution  of  heat.  (Lyell: 
Prin.,  128  ;  Sir  John  Herschel,  Proc.  Roy.  Astron.  Soc ,  No.  iii, 
Jan.,  1840 ;  Balfonr  Stewart).  —  Both  would  involve  simulta- 
neous lowering  of  temperature  over  all  parts  of  the  earth.  (D. 
542.  Compare  Hopkins,  Q.  J.  G.  Soc.,  viii). 

III.  Theory  of  the  varying  distribution  of  land  and  water  ; 

and  consequent  changes  of  marine  currents.  (D.  541 :  Lyell  : 
Prin.,  ch.  vii,  viii ;  Dawson,  Princeton  Rev.,  Mar.  1879).  —  North- 
ern elevation.  (D.  541  ;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ix,  314-5,  II,  xxii,  346).  Clos- 
ing of  Behring's  Strait  and  submergence  of  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
(D.  541).  A  true  cause,  but,  to  be  of  sufficient  magnitude, 

would  conflict  with  evidence  of  permanence  of  oceanic  and  con- 
tinental areas.  —  The  requisite  distribution  of  northern  land 
to  produce  the  known  glaciation,  difficult  to  conceive.  —  The 
effect  of  placing  all  the  land  along  the  equator  would  be  the  op- 
posite of  what  Lyell  supposed.  —  The  theory  not  suited  to  ex- 
plain a  succession  of  ice  periods  at  secular  intervals.  —  North- 
ern elevation  itself  perhaps  an  effect  of  the  real  cause. 

IV.  Suggested  change  in  the  power  of  the  atmosphere  to 

transmit  terrestrial  heat.  (D.  542 ;  Tyndall ;  Hunt).  — 
Cold  of  mountain  elevations.  —  This,  also,  would  affect  all  re- 
gions similarly. 

V.  Astronomical  Theories.    —    Secular  variations  in  the  elements 

of  the  earth's  orbit.  (Stockwell,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xlvi,  87.  See,  also, 
A.  J.  S.,  II,  1,  147.  Also,  Meech,  Smithsonian  Contributions,  ix, 
Art.  i,  Sec.  vii).  —  Discussion  in  reference  to  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere. —  Researches  of  Humboldt,  Arago,  Sir  J.  Herschel, 
Lyell  and  Croll. 

1.  Effect  of  changes  in  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.   (Drayson,  Q.  J. 

Geol.  Soc.,  xxvii,  232;  The  last  glacial  epoch  of  geology;  Thos. 
Belt,  Q.  J.  G.  Soc ,  Oct.  1874,  abstr.  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ix,  313-5). 

(1)  Increased  obliquity  diminishes  glaciation. 

(2)  Diminished  obliquity  increases' glaciation. 

(3)  This  cause  insigni^cant,  and  now  abandoned.     (Croll :    Clint,  and    Time,  ch. 
xxv ;  George  Darwin). 

2.  Possible  shifting  of  position  of  terrestrial   poles.     (Sir  W.  Thom- 

son, Brit.  Assoc.  Rep.,  1876,  pt.  ii,  p.  11  ;  Trans.  Glasgow  GeoL 
Soc.,  iv,  313 ;  Haughton,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  xxvi,  51  :  Geo.  Darwin, 


—  93  — 

Trans.  Roy.  Soc.,  clxvii,   pt  i ;    I.   F.  Twisden,  Q.  J.  G.  Soc.,  Feb. 
1878  ;  Airy,  Athenaeum,  22  Sep.  1869). 

(1)  This  also  an  insignificant  cause.    —    To  displace  the  pole  1°  46',  one-twentieth 
the  surface  of  the  earth  must  be  lifted  10,000  ft.    (G.  H.  Darwin). 

(2)  Since  the  glacial  epoch,  no  physical  changes  have  occurred  which  could  move 
the  pole  six  miles.    (Cr  11,  Geol.  Mag-.,  Sept.  1878). 

(3)  Geological  evidences  exist  that  the  pole  has  not  changed  since  Silurian  time. 
(Haughton,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  Apr.  4, 1878;  Nature.  July  4, 1878  ;  E.  Hill,  Geol. 
Mag.,  June,  1878;  Croll,  Geol.  Mag..  Sep.  1878;  W.  Thomson,  at  sup). 

(4)  Dynamical  principles  show  the  present  axis  a  necessary  permanency.    (Sir  W. 
Thomson,  ut  sup ;  Brit.  Assoc.,  1874). 

3.  Effect  of  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  or  change  in  position  of  the 
apsides.  (Adhemar:  Revolutions  de  la  mer ;  Le  Hon  :  Periodi- 
cite  des  Grandes  Deludes,  1858). 

(1)  Winter  solstice  in  perihelion  diminishes  glaciation.     —     Opposite  view  enter- 
tained by  J.  J.  Murphy.    (%.  J.  G.  Soc.,  xxv,  350). 

(2)  Summer  solstice  in  perihelion  increases  glaciation. 

(3)  This  cause  alone  also  insufficient.    —    Croll  now  says  null.    ( Clint,  and  Time, 
83;  Phil.  Mag.,  Sep.  1869  ;  Arago.  Edinb.  New  Phil.  Jour.,  vi,  1834). 

1.  Effect  of  change  in  eccentricity  of  earth's  orbit. 

(1)  Increased  eccentricity  increases  glaciation. 

(2)  Diminished  eccentricity  dimishes  glaciation. 

(3)  This  cause  alone  regarded  as  inefficient.    (Sir  J.  Herschel,  Treatise  on  Astron- 
omy, §315;    Outlines  of  Astronomy,  I  368:    Arago,  Annuaire  for  1834,  p.  199; 
Edinb.  New  Phil.   Jour.,  Apr.   1834,  p.  244:    Humboldt:    Cosmos,    iv,  459, 
Bonn's  ed. ;  Phys.  Descrip.  Hea-aens,  336). 

(4)  Croll  connects  this  with  consequent  changes  in  ocean  currents.    (Croll :  dim. 
and  Time,  etc.  See  brief  abstract  by  Croll  in  A.J.  S.,  Ill,  xvi,  389,  and  a  fuller 
one  by  A..Wiuchell  in  International  Review,  July- Aug.,  1876). 

(a)  Changes  in  eccentricity  produce  little  or  no  direct  effect. 

(J)  Increased  eccentricity  produces]  diminished  winter  heat  and  this  pro- 
motes snowy  precipitation.  —  The  prolongation  of  the  winter  thus  only 
increases  the  snow.  —  The  short,  hot  summer  would  not  diminish  it. 

—  Heat  absorbed  in  liquefaction.     —     Fogs  and  vapors  exclude  solar 
rays. 

(c)  Effect  of  this  upon  ocean  currents:— Prevailing  winds  the  cause  of  ocean 
currents.  (Croll :  of  cit.,  ch.  ii.  iii,  xiii).  —  Maury's  theory.  (Maury  :  Phys. 
Geoff.  Sea,  §  24).  —  Appears  to  be  untenable.  (Croll :  op  cit.,  ch.  vi,  vii). 

—  Carpenter's  theory.    (Carpenter,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  Dec.  1868,  Nov.  1869  ; 
Nature,  i,  490;  Proc.  Roy.  Geogr.  Soc.,  xv).     —     Also  untenable.    (Croll ; 
op  cit.,  ch.  viii,  xi). 

Why  the  region  of  calms  is  now  north  of  the  equator.    —    The  condition 
supposed  would  place  it  s^.uth.    —    This   would  direct  the  Gulf-Stream 
southward.    (Croll :  op  cit.,  ch  xiv). 
(rf)  European  cold  caused  by  diversion  of  Gulf-Stream. 

(5)  Such  a  theory  when  established  would  furnish  a  clew  to  geological  time.  (Croll : 
op  cit,,  ch.  xix.    Lecture  LIII ,  IV;. 

(8)  Criticisms  of  Croll's  theory.  (J.  J.  Murphy,  J?.  J.  G.  Soc.,  xxv,  350,  1869,  abstr. 
A.  y.S.,  II,  xlix,  115-8;  S.  Newcomb,  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  xi,  263  ;  Chas.  Martins, 
Revue  des  deux  Mondes,  1867). 


—  94  — 

VI.  Displacement  of  Earth's  centre  of  gravity  by  an  ice-cap. 

(Croll,  op.  cit.,  ch.  xxiii,  xxiv  ;  Adhemar  :  Revolutions  de  la  mer. 
Comp.  Shaler,  Mem.  Bos.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii,  322).  —  Sub- 
mergence an  incident  of  glaciation. 

XLVL   MOTION  OF  GLACIERS. 

L.  AGASSIZ:  Systeme  Glaciare,  1847;  JAMES  CROLL,  Philosoph.  Mag.,  March,  869. 
Sep.  1870;  A.  J.  S.  Ill,  i,  65-68;  Climate  andTime.  ch.  xxx,  xxxi :  Canon  MOSELFY, 
Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  7  Jan.  1369;  Phil.  Mag..  May,  1769,  Jan,  1870,  Aug.  1871 ;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill, 
ii,  304 ;  ALBERT  HEIM,  Poggendorff's  Annalen  ;  Phil.  Mag.,  June,  If 71 ;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill, 
ii,  145 ;  W.  MATHEWS,  Alpine  Journal,  Feb,  1870 ;  L..  E.  and  D.,  Phil.  Mag.,  Dec.  1871, 
Jan.  1872 ;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  iii,  99  ;  BALL,  Phil.  Mag.,  July,  1870,  Feb.  1871;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  i, 
268;  JAMES  D.  FORBES:  Occasional  Papers  on  the  Theory  of  Glaciers;  JOHN  TYNDALL: 
The  Glaciers  of  the  Alps,  1860  ;  The  Forms  of  Water,  1872 ;  JOHN  AlTKEN,  Nature.  13 
Feb.  1873;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  v,  305. 

I.  Nature  of  the  motions  of  Glaciers.    (Ref.  Lect.  XVIII). 

1.  More  rapid  in  the  middle  than  along  the  borders. 

2.  More  rapid  at  the  surface  than  at  the  bottom. 

3.  More  rapid  by  day  than  by  night. 

4    And  twice  as  fast  in  summer  as  in  winter. 

5.  The  glacier  adapts  itself  to  the  inequalities  of  the  channel. 

II.  Theory  that  the  Glacier  moves  by  Expansion  and  Con- 

traction. (L.  Atrassiz;  Charpentier;  Moseley,  Proc.  Bristol  Nat- 
uralists'1 Soc.,  1869). 

1.  Effect  of  expansion  of  a  slab  on  an  inclined  plane. 

2.  Effect  of  contraction  of  the  same. 

HI.  Theory  that  it  moves  as  a  Viscous  Body.  (D.  682 ;  L. 
57;  Bordier,  1773;  Rendu;  Mem.  Acad.  Sci.,  Savoy.  1841;  J.  D. 
Forbes :  Travels  in  the  Alps,  1843  ;  Occasional  Papers). 

1.  Arguments  for  this  theory. 

2.  This  does  not  explain  seasonal  and  diurnal  variations  in  the  rate 

of  motion. 

IV.  Theory  of  motion  by  Regelation.  (L.  58;  Tyndall,  Phil 
Trans.,  cxlvii,  327  ;  Glaciers  of  the  Alps  ;  James  D.  Forbes,  Proc. 
Roy.  Soc.,  viii,  455  ;  Helmholtz  :  Popular  Lectures,  133,  seq). 

1.  Definition   of  regelation.     (Tyndall :   Heat  as   a   mode  of  motion, 

167-72). 

2.  Faraday's  explanation  of  regelation.     (Tyndall  :  Forms  of   Water, 

173).  —  Molecular  attractions  more  solidifying  in  the  centre 
than  at  the  surface.  -  -  Hence  two  liquefying  surfaces  brought 
together  solidify  beciitiKe  made  internal. 

3.  James  Thomson's  explanation.     (Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  Edinb.,  Feb.  1850; 

Tyndall:  Hours  of  Exercise,  383,  seq. ;  Jamin  :  Traite  de  Physique, 
ii,  105;  Helmholtz:  Popular  Sci.  Lectures,  Am.  ed.,  107-152,  es- 


-  95  — 

pecially  133).  —  Pressure,  consequent  melting,  and  refreezing 
oil  removal  of  pressure.  Requisite  pressure  is  in  some 

cases  absent. 

4.  Final  explanation.    (Croll :  dim.  and  Time,  557 ;  Tyndall :  Hours 

of  Exercise,  365,384).  Two  melting  surfaces  brought  into 

contact  assume  the  condition  of  an  interior  film,  where  the  icy 
state  is  maintained. 

5.  Regelation  explains  persistent  continuity  of  the   ice,  but   not  the 

motion  which  precedes,  and  is  the  condition  of  regelation. 

V.  Theory  of  Motion  by  Molecular  Melting  and  Refreezing. 

(Croll  :  Phil.  Mag.,  March,  1866,  Sep.  1870  ;  dim.  and  Time,  ch. 
xxxi). 

1.  A  molecule  at  the  instant  of  receiving  heat  above  32°,  liquefies 

and  flows  into  the  most  acoessibl'e  interstice. 

2.  But  it  instantly  transmits  its  heat  to  the  next  molecule  and  re- 

freezes.  -  -  In  refreezing  it  requires  more  space,  and  creates  an 
expansive  tendency  of  the  mass. 

3.  This  next   molecule  similarly  liquefies,  flows,  transmits    and  re- 

freezes.  Each  succeeding  molecule,  in  turn,  behaves  simi- 

larly. 

4.  Thus  the  ice-mass  is  transferred  molecularly  to  lower  levels. 

Erosion  is  effected  by  the  molecular  transfer,  and  by  the  molar 
motion  resulting  from  expansion. 

5.  Difficulties  of  this  theory. 

(1)  The  proof  cited  to  establish  transmission  of  heat  through  ice  confounds  dia- 
thermancy with  conductivity. 

(2)  When  one  molecule  melts,  a  whole  layer  would  melt  simultaneously.  On  trans- 
mitting their  heat  to  thenext  layer,  that  would  melt;  but  the  first  layer  would 
not  recongeal,  in  consequence  of  a  new  accession  of  heat.    Thus  the  conduction 
of  heat  through  a  mass  at  32°  would  liquefy  it  wholly  or  partially,  and   it 
would  not  recongeal. 

(3)  Molecular  movements  would  not  produce  geological  denudation. 

VI.  Present  state  of  Theory. 

1.  Ice,  like  wax,  molasses-candy  and  many  other  substances,  is  brit- 

tle under  a  momentary  force,  but  yields  moleculary  under  a  con- 
tinued pressure.  —  It  is  so  far  a  fluid,  and  like  all  fluids  would 
adapt  itself  to  inequalities. 

2.  It  has  not  been  shown  that  a  slight  pressure,  even  its  own  gravity, 

is  not  sufficient  to  produce  the  phenomenon  of  "shear,"  or  mol- 
ecular over-slipping.  —  It  may  be  presumed  that  gravity 
would  suffice.  —  Canon  Mosely's  assumption  of  a  high  "  index 
of  shear  "  not  admitted. 


3.  The  residual  molecular  cohesion  would  tend  to  cause  the  ice  to 

move,  to  a  partial  extent,  as  a  rigid  mass.  —  It  would  there- 
fore erode. 

4.  All  refreezing  or  regelation  in  the  interior  spaces  and  interstices 

would  develop  an  expansive  tendency  which  would  augment 
both  terminal  motion  and  erosive  action,  and  would  help  the 
freer  border  of  the  ice  over  hindrances  to  motion.  —  Hence 
more  rapid  motion  when  thawing  introduces  water  into  the 
icy  spaces. 

5.  Crevassing  results  from  an  abrupt  strain  which  the  waxiness  of 

the  ice  has  not  time  to  respond  to.  —  A  gentler  change  of  slope 
affords  more  time,  and  may  avoid  crevassing.  (Comp.  Aitken,  A. 
J.  S.,  Ill,  v.  305).  —  Tyndall's  contrary  opinion.  (L.  59; 
Tyndall :  Hours  of  Exercise,  etc). 

6.  Grains  of  truth  in  most  of  the  theories. 

XLVIL  CAMPESTRAL  FORMATIONS. 

~  Superficial  deposits  spread  out  in  generally  treeless,  but  sometimes 
forest- covered,  plains. 

I.  Loess. 

1.  Review  of  geographical  distribution.      (Pumpelly,   A.  J.  S.,  Ill, 

viii,  133;  Aughey,  Hoyden  Ann.  Rep.,  1874,  245-50  ;  Sketches  of  Ne- 
braska, 1880,  280-4) ;  v.  Richthofen  :  China,  56-74,  152-189. 

2.  Its  geological  position. 

3.  Physical  characters.      (v.    Richthofen).     —     Color.     —      Fine- 

ness. —  Calcareity.  —  Cylindrical  perforations.  —  Fossil 
remains. 

7<  4.  Theories  of  sedimentary  origin,  marine,  lacustrine  or  fluviatile. 
(Aughey,  ut  sup. ;  Kingsmill,  Q.  J.  Q.  Soc.,  1871,  376;  v.  Richt- 
hofen, 162-8). 

(1)  Grounds.    (Gximbel :  Oeog-nost.Beschreibung  des  Bair.  Alpengebirges,  1861,  798;  805, 
852,  872 ;  Fallou :  Ueber  den  loess,  Jahrb.  f.  Min.,  1867. 143-58). 

(2)  Difficulties  of  these  theories. 

5.  Theory  of  glacial  and  torrent  origin.     (Lyell :    Antiquity  of  Man, 

ch.  xvi). 

'o.  Theory  of  sub-aerial  origin.  (Richthofen:  China,  74-84;  Pum- 
pelly, A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  viii,  133).  --  This  theory  opposed.  (Jos.  Le- 
conte,  A.  J.  S.,  III). 

II.  Arid  Plains. 

1.  The  "Great  Plains"  of  the  trans-Mississippi. 

(1)  Their  physical  characters. 

(2)  Their  topography. 


—  97  — 

2.  Treelessness  generally  due  to  aridity. 

(1)  Meteorological  data. 

(2)  Results  of  irrigation. 

3.  Influence  of  alkalinity  in  the  soil. 

4.  The  plains  of  the  "Plateau"  and  "Basin"  regions  of  the  U.S. 

III.  Marshes,  Bogs,  Wet  Plains,  Swamps,  Heaths. 

1.  American  Bogs  or  Swales. 

(1)  Treeless.    —    Grass-covered.    —    Level.    —     Peaty.    —    Generally  underlaid 
by  marl. 

(2)  These  evidently  the  beds  of  ancient  lakes.      —      Wetness  the  residuum  of  the 
lake-water.    —    Destined  to  be  expelled  by  further  additions  of  solid  matters. 

2.  Wet  lands  underlaid  by  "hard-pan." 

(1)  The  "  Landes  "  of  Gascony,  the  "  Cam  pine  "  of  Be'gium,  the  Heaths  of  Holland 
and  Germany.  (Reclus :  Earth,  ch.  xiii ;  Emil  de  Lavaleye,  Revue,  des  Deux 
Mondes,  June,  1861).  —  Some  pine-covered  plains  in  Prussia  and  the  United 
States. 

/'  (2)  Regions  underlaid  by  a  ferruginous  film  of  concreted  sand.  ("  alips"  of  Gas- 
cony  or  "  jernal "  of  Jutland).  —  Sufficiently  tlevated,  but  being  without 
slope,  and  impervious  below. 

IV.  Sandy  Steppes  and  Tundras.      (Comp.  Humboldt:  Steppet 

and  Deserts  ,in  Views  of  Nature). 

1.  Steppes  of  the  Dnieper.     —     Steppes  of  the  Caspian  and  their 

aridity,  (v.  Baer  :  Kaspische  Studien;  Zaleski;  La  vie  des  steppe* 
Kirghizes).  —  Winter  aspect.  —  Tundras  of  northern  Si- 
beria. 

2.  These  regions  recently  sea-covered.     —      Brackish  and  alkaline. 

—     In  northern  Siberia  permanently  frozen  at  shallow  depths. 

V.  Treeless  Prairies,  Savannas,  Grassy  Steppes. 

1.  Prairies  of  Illinois.  —  The  "  Polders  "  along  the  coast  of  the  Ger- 

man Ocean.  —  The  Magyar  "Puszta."  —  The  "Tchornosjom" 
or  Black  Earth  of  Russia,  stretching  from  the  Black  Sea  north- 
east, and  covering  an  area  twice  the  size  of  France.  (Ruprecht : 
Bullet,  de  V Academic  de  St.  Petersbourg,  vii,  No  5).  —  Plains  or 
"Steppes  "  of  southern  Siberia.  (Humboldt:  Asie  Centrale  and 
Tableaux  de  la  Nature).  -  "  Llanos  "  of  Columbia.  —  '"  Pam- 
pas "  of  the  La  Plata.  (Humboldt :  Tableaux ;  Voyage  dans  lea 
Regions  equinoxiales). 

2.  Theories  of  Origin  of  Illinois  Prairies.    (W.,  264-72 ;  A.  J.  S.,  II, 

Nov.  1864). 

(1)  Treelessness  caused  by  annual  burnings.    (A.  J.  S.,  I,  i,  331).     —     Generally 
abandoned. 

(2)  Caused  by  choking  out  by  the  tangled  roots  of  cane.    (A.  J.  S.,  I,  xxlii,  40), 
—    Cane  does  not  grow  in  Illinois. 

(3)  Caused  by  excessive  dryuess  of  climate.    (D.,  44 ;  Cooper,  Smithson.  Ann.  Rep., 
1858,276;    Newberry,  Ohio  Agric.  Rep.,  1859;   Lambert,  Pacific  R.  R.  Rep.,  i. 
166).      —      The  treeless  plains  of  the  west  probably  originated,  in  part,  from 
such  cause.    —    But  in  Illinois,  trees  grow  when  planted.] 

I 


(4)  Caused  by  excessive  humidity  of  soil.     (Atwater,  A.  J.  S.,  I,  i/116 ;  Bourne, 
»J.,  ii,  30;  Lesquereux,  zrf  Ark.  Geol.  Rep.    Also,  Western  Monthly  Mag.,  Feb. 
1836;  Engelmann,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xxxvi,  384).     --     Objected  that  the  Illinois 
prairies  are  not  generally  wet.    —    That  certain  appropriate  trees  often  occupy 
wet  situations.    —    That  in  Illinois  trees  grow  when  introduced. 

(5)  Caused  by  extreme  fineness  of  the  soil.    (J.  D.  Whitney.  Iowa  Geol.  Rep.,  i,  24 ; 
New  Amer.  Cyclopced.,  Prairies).     —    |  Wanting  in  evidence.      —      Trees  do 
grow  when  introduced.    (Wells,  A.  J.  S.,  I,  i,  331 ;    Engelmann,  ib.,  II,  xxxvi, 
389;  Edwards,  Dep.  o/Agric.,  1862,  495 ;  C.  A.  White,  Geol.  lotoa,  1868, 166.  See 
also,  Prairie  Farmer,  Chicago, passim  ;  Gerhard :  Illinois  as  it  is,  277). 

(6)  Geological  theory.    (W.,  241-72  ;  A.  J.  S.,  IL,  Nov.  1864). 

(a)  The  prairie  soil  a  lacustrine  formation.  —  Physical  characters.  —  Fresh 
water  shells.  —  Former  high  level  of  the  Great  Lakes.  (Lect.  XX, 
III.  2). 

(6)  Lacustrine  sediments  inclose  but  few  living  germs.    (W.,  ut  suf\ 

(c)  The  drift  deposits  seem  to  be  replete  with  living  germs.     —     Sudden  ap- 
pearance of  unwonted  species.    (W.,  ut  sup). 

(d)  These  living  germs  buried  during  glacial  epoch. 

Approximation  of  Tertiary  and  even  Cretaceous  vegetation  to  modern 
types.  (Lesquereux,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xxvii,  363 ;  Newberry,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xxix, 
215,  seq.). 

Glacial  action  must  have  buried  innumerable  living  germs. 
Prolonged  preservation  of  woody  tissue.  —  Maul  handles  in  ancient 
mines  of  L.  Superior.  —  X  Pi'es  of  London  Bridge  and  Old  Savoy  Place, 
and  the  city  of  Venice.  — V  Piles  of  Trajan's  bridge  over  the  Danube.  — 
Piles  in  the  Swiss  lakes.  —  Wheels  in  Romau  mines  of  San  Domingo. 
—  Cedar  timbers  in  N.  J.  Swamps.  (Cook:  Geol.  N.  J.,  343,  seq ;  Lyell: 
Travels  in  JV.  A..2A  Vis.,i,  34).  —  Timber  in  saliferous  sandstone  in  S. 
A.  (Orton :  Andes  and  Amazon.  116,  note).  —  Found  buried  with  Co- 
hoes  Mastodon.  (Hall,  App.  Rep.  N.  T.  Regents).  —  Prostrate  for- 
ests beneath  diluvium.  (Locke,  Trans.  Assoc.  Amer.  Nat.  and  Geol., 
240;  Worthen:  Geol.  III.  ;  A.  J.  S.,  II,  i,  54).  —  In  the  Danish  bogs. 
(Mem.  Acad.  Sci.,  Copenhagen,  ix,  1842;  Smithson.  Ann.  Rep.,  1860,  305, 
seq. }  Whittlesey,  Proc.  Amer.  Assoc.,  1866,  49).  —  Wood  in  Cretaceous 
sandstone  iii.Ala. 

^j..  Persistence  of  vitality  of  seeds.  ( W.,  ut  sup. ;  Amer.  Exchange  and  Rev., 
June,  1870;  Gardener's  Chron icle,  Lond.;  Patent  Off".  Rep.,  1857,  Agric., 
256).  —'r  Indications  of  latent  seeds  iu  the  soil,  (Hist.  Brit.  Dominions 
in  Amer..  Lond.,  1773  ;  Marsh  :  Man  and  Nature,  285,  seq. ;  Darwin  :  Ori- 
gin of  Species.  Am.  ed.,  69).  —  *  Dr.  Lindley's  raspberry  seeds  from  Ha- 
drian's time.  — ""^  Wheat  from  Egyptian  mummies.  (Carpenter :  Elem. 
Physiol.,  Am.  ed.,  41 ;  Draper :  Intellect.  Level.  Europe,  72 ;  L.  Agass.: 
Prin.  Zool..  136).  —  The  account  doubted.  (Asa  Gray,  A.  J.  S. ;  Lyell : 
Pritt.,  565).  —  Fresh  grape  seeds  with  Cohoes  Mastodon.  (Hall).  — 
"A  New  species  of  poppy  from  soil  beneath  the  refuse  of  the  Laurium  silver 
mines  in  Greece.  (Theod.  v.  Heldreich,  Univ.  Athens). 

(«)  Flora  of  the  preglacial  period  reproduced  from  these  germs. 

(f)  But  the  flora  of  the  prairies  must  have  come  from  surrounding  regions. 

(g\  Cooperation  of  Indian  burnings. 

(A)  This  theory  criticized.  (Geo.  Vasey,  Amer.  Entomol.  and  Botanist,  July- 
August,  1870  ;  Dana,  Amer.  J.  S.,  II ;  Lesquereux). 


—  99- 
XLVIII.    THE  QUESTION  OF  EVOLUTION  IN  GEOLOGY. 

I.  Prolegomena. 

1.  Evolution  the  progressive  differentiation  of  an  identical  existence. 

—      The  progress  of  heterogeneity   out  of  homogeneity. 

Based  on  the  principle  of  continuity.     (Leibnitz). 
2    It  is  a  method,  a  mode,  a  relation  in  the  terms  of  succession. 
3.  A  question  of  fact,  not  of  causation  or  of  consequences.    --    Th» 

fact  to  be  ascertained  by  observation.    —    The  philosophy  of 

causation  may  be  consulted  when  the  fact  is  known. 

II.  The  Principle  of  Continuity  in  the  Inorganic  "World.  (W., 

The  Doctrine  of  Evolution,  18-27). 

1.  All  consecutive  conditions  mutually  connected  by  an  infinity  of 

intermediate  conditions. 

(1)  The  formation  of  a  river-delta.     —     Its  growth  inch  by  inch,  millimetre  by 
millimetre. 

(2)  The  development  of  a  continent.    —     Its  surface  expanded  by  infinitesimal 
stages.  —.Its  final  highly  differentiated  condition  reached  bv  passage  through 
all  lower  degrees  of  differentiation. 

(2)  The  formation  of  the  earth.    —    Differentially  progressive  in  its  mode  of  cool- 
ing.   —    In  its  process  of  solidification.    —    In  its  sedimentations.     —    In  its 
denudations.    —    In  its  diversification. 

(3)  Indications  that  a  material  continuity  runs  back  from  the  present  condition  of 
the  earth  through  its  cosmical  history,  and  thence  through  the  cosmical  his- 
tory of  all  the  planets,  and  thence  through  the  totality  of  cosmical  history. 
(Lects.  XXXIX-XLIII). 

2.  Discontinuity  of  process  inconceivable,  except  through  new  crea- 

tive beginnings. 

3.  General  admission  that  inorganic  history  exemplifies  the  princi- 

ple of  evolution. 

III.  The  Principle  of  Evolution  in  Palaeontology. 

1.  Are  successive  organic  types  materially  (genetically)  connected? 

2.  The  general  graduation  of  organic  forms.    (Lect.  XXXI). 

(1)  The  general  tenor  of  palceontological  history. 

(2)  The  nicely  graduated  successions  in  certain  instances.    (Lect.  XXXVI). 

3.  Apparent  breaches  of  the  principle  of  progress. 

(1)  Missing  links.    (Lect.  XXXIV). 

(2)  G<aduated  structures  chronologically  misplaced.    (Lect.  XXXV). 

(3)  The  misplacement  sometimes  amounting  to  apparent  regress  in  respect  to 
rank.    (Lect.  XXXI). 

4.  These  appearances  perhaps  attributable  to  the  imperfections  of 

our  knowledge.    (Lect.  XXXIV,  I). 

(1)  Successional  gaps  may  be  filled  by  future  discoveries.     —    The  constant  ten- 
dency of  discovery  to  fill  the  gaps. 

(2)  Chronological  misplacements  perhaps  only  local.    —    In  another  region  the 
lower  terms  may  have  appeared  earlier,    —     Appearances  of  regression  simi- 
larly explicable. 


—  100  — 

(3)  The  palseontologlcal  consequences  of  changes  in  ancient  faunal  distributions. 

(0)  Illustrated  by  changes  now  in  progress. 

(1)  The  record  must  present  for  single  localities  or  regions,  abrupt  transi- 
tions, chronologica  misplacements  and  taxonomic  regressions. 

(4)  Palseontological  consequences  of  relapses  in  the  material   environment  of  life. 
(«)  Correlation  between  structure  and  environment. 

(>)  Strctural  progress  keeps  pace  with  inorganic  progress. 

(e)  Cataclysms  and  local  pauses  in  inorganic  progress  would^condition  arrest  or 

regress  in  organic  history, 
(d)  So,  sudden  improvements  in  environment  might  condition    secularly 

sudden  improvements  in  organic  structure. 

IV.  A  Material  Continuity  not  proved  by  Palaeontology. 

1.  Erroneous  opinion  that  palaeontology  furnishes  a  "demonstration." 

(Huxley:  New  York  Lectureship;  0.  C.  Marsh:  Nashville  Ad- 
dress, 1877). 

2.  A  perfect  graduation  of  terms  compatible  with  a  method  of  uni- 

versal discontinuity. 

(1)  Illustration  from  products  of  human  efforts.       —       Wheeled  vehicles.      — 

Aquatic  vehicles. 

(2)  Illustrated  in  the  law  of  chemical  homologues. 

(4)  In  the  family  groups  of  crystallography. 

(5)  And  even  in  geometrical  forms,  as  the  "  conic  sections  "  and  the  family  of  tri- 
angles. 

(5)  Hence,  each  form  of  life  may  be  conceived  an  independent  origination. 

3.  But  an  evolution  of  the  concept  palaeontologically  demonstrated. 

—  And  this  proves  unity  of  plan,  and  hence,  unity  of  intelli- 
gence. 

V.  A   Material   Continuity  rendered    probable  by  Palaeon- 

tology. 

1.  This  hypothesis  compatible  with  all  the  phenomena. 

2.  We  have  the  right  to  reason  from  the  tenor  of  observed  facts,  as 

well  as  from  the  facts  actually  known.  —  Such  reasoning  im- 
plies that  apparent  gaps  were  actually  filled.  —  That  the  grad- 
uation was  continuous,  and  that  the  relation  of  the  terms  was 
genetic. 

XLIX.  THE  QUESTION  OF  EVOLUTION  AT  LARGE. 

CHARLES  DARWIN:  your.  Linntean  Soc.,  Lond..  1858;  The  Origin  of  Species  by 
means  of  Natural  Selection,  (1758),  N.  Y.,  1860 :  The  Variation  of  Animals  and  J  lants  un- 
der Domestication,  2  vols.,  N.  Y.,  1868:  Expression  of  the  Emotions  in  Man  and  Animals, 
N.  Y.,  1873;  The  Descent  of  Man,  and  Selection  in  relation  to  Sex,  N.  Y.,  1877. 

ALFRED  R.  WALLACE:  Ann.  and  Mag.  N.  Hist.,  Sep.  1855;  your.  Linn.  Soc.,  Lond. 
1858;  Contributions  to  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection,  N.  Y.,  1871. 

HERBERT  SPENCER:  First  Principles  of  Philosophy,  N.  Y.,  1865;  Principles  of  Biol- 
ogy, 2  vols.,  N.  Y.,  1866. 

ST.  GEORGE  MIVART  :  On  the  Genesis  of  Species,  N.  Y.,  1871 ;  Lessons  from  Nature  as 
manifested  in  Mind  and  Matter,  N.  Y.,  1876;  Contemporary  Evolution,  N.  Y.,  1876  :  Man 


—  101  — 

ASA  GRAY:  Darwiniana-.  Essays  and  Reviews  pertaining  to  Darwinism,  N.  Y., 
1878. 

T.  H.  HUXLEY  :  On  the  Origin  of  Species,  or  the  Causes  of  the  Phenomena  of  Or- 
ganic Nature.  N.  Y.,  1866. 

EKNST  HAECKEL:  Naturliche  Schopfungsgeschichte,  4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1873,  trans.  Nat- 
History  of  Creation,  N.  Y ;  Anthropogenie  .•  Ent-wickelungsgeschichte  des  Menschen,  Leip- 
zig, 1874,  trans.  The  Origin  of  Man,  N.  Y. 

H.  S.  CHAPMAN  :  Evolution  of  Life,  2d  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1873. 

A.  WINCHELL  :  The  Doctrine  of  Evolution,  N.  Y.,  1874. 

Also  DEM  AILLET:  Telliamed,  ou  entreliens,  etc.,  Amsterdam,  1 748,  also  transl. ;  LA- 
MARCK: Philosophique  Zoologique,  etc.,  nouv.-ed.,  1873 ;  NAEGELI:  Enstehungund  Be- 
griff  der  Art ;  A.  KoLLIKER :  Ueber  die  Darwin'sche  Schopfungsgeschichte,\3£A;  E.  D. 
COPE:  Origin  of  Genera,  Proc.  A.  N.  S.,  Phil ,  Oct.  1868 ;  The  Hypothesis  of  Evolution, 
Lippincott's  Mag.,  1870,  and  "  University  S  ries,"  New  Haven,  1873 ;  The  Method  of  Cre- 
ation of  Organic  Types,  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  Sci ,  1871 ;  A  Review  of  the  Modern  Doctrine  of 
Evolution.  Amer.  Nat.,  Mar.  and  April,  1880, 166 ;  T.  PARSONS,  A.J.  S.,  II,  xxx,  i,  July, 
1860 ;  R.  OWEN  :  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,  ch.  xl ;  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xlvii,  33 ;  A.  HYATT  :  Mem. 
Bos.  Soc.  N.  Hist.,  I,  pt.  ii,  1867;  Amer.  Nat.,  iv,  230-7,  June,  1870 ;  J.  D.  HOOKEK  :  Flora 
of  Tasmania,  Introduc.  Essav ;  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xxix,  1  and  305,  Jan.  1860. 

I.  The  Palseontological  Evidence.    (Lect.  XLVIII). 

II.  The  Morphological  Evidence. 

1.  Familiar  indications  of  blood-relationship.    —    Eminently  mor- 

phological. 

2.  Structural  relations  in  the  organic  kingdoms.    —    Basis  of  classi- 

fication. 

(1)  Fundamental  plans  of  structure. 

(a)  As  to  ultimate  structures.    —   Cells,  membranes,  fibres,  tissues. 
(&)  As  to  general  structure.    (Lect.  XXXI,  II ;  XXXVII,  I). 

/^  (2)  Fundamental  physiological  conceptions.     —    Nutrition,  Respiration,  Circula- 
tion, Neuration,  Musculation,  Wastage  and  Repair. 

V  3.  Rudimental  structures.  —  Rudiments  of  structures  morpholog- 
ically interpretable,  but  functionally  useless.  —  "  Dysteleol- 
ogy"  of  Haeckel. 

2.  These  all  indications  of  genetic  connection  and  common  origin. 
5.  But  not  a  demonstration  of  such. 

III.  The  Variational  Evidence. 

1.  Arising  from  Geographical  Position. 

y  (1)  As  to  plants.  —  Juniper,  Paper  Birch,  Chestnut  Oak,  Hackberry,  Beach  Plum, 
Black  Thorn ,  June  Berry,  Wild  Rose.  —  Confluence  of  genera,  as  Cardamin* 
with  Dentaria  on  one  hand,  and  Arabis  on  the  other. 

(2)  As  to  animals. 

(a)  Echinoderms.     (L.  Agassiz,  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.,   v.  72).      —      Sponges, 

(Haeckel:  Die  Kalkschwamme). 
(6)  Molluscs.    (CoDper,  Proc.  Cal.  Acad.  N.  Sci.,  v.  28;  Barber,   Amer.  Nat., 

Sep..  1876,  529 ;  Weatherby,  Proc.   Cincinnati  Soc.  Nat.  Sci.,  No.  1,  June, 

1876:  Lewis,  Proc.  Bos.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  v.  121-8). 
(c)  Insects.    (A.S.Packard,   Geometrid  ATMs.  Hay  den  Surv.,  x,  42-3;  W.  H. 

Edwards:   Butterflies  of  N.  A.,  &.ix;   Walsh,  Proc.  Entmol.  Soc.,  Phil., 


—  102  — 

(rf)  Fishes.  —  Blind  fishes  of  caverns.  (F.  W.  Putnam:  Life  in  the  Mammoth 
Cave). 

(e)  Birds.  (S.  F.  Baird,  Pacif.  R.  R.  Rep.,  ix,  1858 ;  Mem.  Wat.  Acad.,  Jan/1863 ; 
A.y.\  S.,  II,  xli,  Jan.,  Mar.  and  May;  J.  A.Allen,  Proc.  Bos.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist., 
xv,  156  ;Bull.  Mas.  Comp.  ZooL,  ii,  No.  3,  pp.  229-49;  ib.,  iii,  July.  1872; 
Bull.Hayden  Sum.,  ii.No.  4,345  Aug.  1876,:repub.w4»««-.  Nat.,  Oct.  1876,  625; 
R.  Ridgeway,  A.J.  S.,  Ill.iv,  454,  Dec.  1872,  v.  39,  Jan.,  1873,  and  Bull,  Hay- 
den  Surv.,  No.  2, 1875,  58 ;  Amer.  Nat.,  vii,  415,  July,  U873.  Comp.,  also, 
Coues,  Proc.  A.N.  S.,  July,  1872,  60;  Key  to  N.  Amer.  Birds,  Oct.  1872). 
—  Generalizations  drawn  by  Baird,  Allen  and  Ridgeway. 

(/)  Mammals.  (Baird,  Pacif.  R.  R.  Rep.,  viii,  1857:  Allen,  Proc.  Boston 
Soc.  N.  H.,  xvi,  276;  Rod.  Review,  i.  No.  1,  May,  1877;  Leporidce-. 
Hayden  Rep.,  xi.  4to.,  269,  304-323,  645-52;  E.  Coues,  Muridce,  Hay- 
den  Rep.,  xi,4to.,  29-31,  32,  40,65,73,  75,185,189,240;  H.  C.  .Yarrow, 
Wheeler  Rep.  4to.,  v,  ch.  i). 
(3)  These  variant  forms  as  good  species  as  ever.  —  The  error  of  abandoning 

them  as  species. 
/   2.  Arising  from  changed  environment. 

(1)  The  Axolotl  or  Siredon  lichenoides.    (Dum<5ril ;  Marsh,  A.  J.  S.,  II.  xlvi,  364  ; 

Tribune  Extra,  No.  8). 

(2)  Branchipus  and  Artemia,  (Schmaukevitch ;    Hagen,  Proc.  A.  A.,  1876).      — 
These  results,  however,  to  be  received  with  caution.    (Verrill,  Proc.  A.  A., 
1869,  230.. 

3.  Arising  from  hybridity. 

(1)  Repeated  assertion  that  hybridity  has  originated  no  permanent  forms. 

(2)  Hybrid  species  of  trees  enumerated  in  Floras.     (Gray:  Man.  Bot.  North.  U. 
S).     —     Vegetable  hybriMty  fully  established.    (A.  DeCaudolle,  Treatise  on 
Oaks  ;  Naudiu  :  Hybridity  in  the  Veg.  Kingdom).  \.^£j*.     ^*'*A 

(3)  Fertile  hybrids  of  Common  and  Chinese  geese  in  Mt.  Auburn  Cemetery,  (You- 
mans,  in  Quatrefage's  Nat.  Hist,  of  Man.  143).      —     Very  common  in  India, 
and  occurring  in  England,  (C.  Darwin,  Nature,  xxi,  207,  Jan.  1, 1880). 

(4)  Fertile  hybrids  of  hare  and  rabbit.  (Gindre,  Bull.de  la  Soc.  imp.  Zool.  d> Ac- 
climation, 1870,  659-67). 

4  Examples  among  fossil  remains. 

(1)  Ortht's  oiforata  with  varieties  lynx,  laticosta,  dentata,  acutilirata.  (Meek :  Pal. 

Ohio,  i,  pi.  x ;  Hall :  Pal.  N.  Y.,  i,  133,  pi.  xxxii  D). 
4^    (2)  Spirifera  disjuncta,  with  eighteen  varieties.    (Hall:   Pal.  N.    Y.,  iv.pl.  xli, 

xlii). 

(3)  Spirifera  mucronata.  (Hall :  Pal.  N.  Y.,  iv,  pi.  xxiv).  —  Atrypa  reflation's, 
with  sixteen  varieties.  (Hall :  Pal.  N.  Y.,  pi.  li-liii ;  WhitfleM,  XIX  R<p.  N. 
Y.  Regents).  —  Pentamerus  Kni$htii.  (Davidson:  Brit.  Foss.  Brachiop). 

5.  Rudimentary  structures  result  from  variation. 

6.  The  facts  of  Variability  demonstrate  the  possibility  of  a  material 

continuity  between  species. 

'  IV.  The  Embryological  Evidence. 

].  Nature  of  the  embryological  succession.  —  /"We  can  indicate 
twenty-two,  or  more,  stages  in  the  development  of  highest  mam- 
mals. (Hseckel:  Anthropogenic). 


—  103  — 

2.  Parallelism  of  all  embryonic  series.    —    Lower  forms  arrested  at 

earlier  stages.  -  -  The  parallelism  suggests  descent  from  com- 
mon ancestors. 

3.  Parallelism  with  geological  succession.      —      Earlier  geological 

types  were  comparatively  embryonic. 

4.  Parallelism  with  the  morphologically  graduated  series. 

5.  An  identical  order  of  succession  three  times  occurring.     —     The 

first  ontogenetic  and  rapid.  —  The  second  palseontological  and 
slow.  —  The  third  tazonomic  and  simultaneous. 

6.  Embryological  history  proves  that  transition  by  material  continuity, 

from  term  to  term  of  this  succession,  is  a  fact.  —  If  a  fact  in 
the  embryological  series,  it  is  probably  a  fact  in  the  almost  iden- 
tical palseontological  and  taxonomic  series.  —  The  derivation 
of  species  by  material  continuity  must  therefore  be  admitted  as 
a  general  law  of  nature. 

L.  EVOLUTION  THEORIES. 

[Authorities  as  in  Lecture  XLIX]. 

I.  Necessary  Discriminations  in  the  discussion  of  Evolution. 

1.  Is  a  universal  Method  of  Evolution  a  fact  in  nature  ? 

2.  What  are  the  conditions  under  which  an  evolution  arises? 

3.  What  are  the  instruments  and  agencies  for  effecting  it? 

4.  What  is  the  efficient  cause  employing  the  agencies,  under  the  re- 

quisite conditions,  in  producing  the  fact? 

5.  These  discriminations  often  overlooked.        —        The  Fact  some- 

times regarded  the  ultimate  goal  of  science.  —  Conditions 
often  regarded  a  full  explanation.  —  Instruments  or  agencies 
often  set  down  as  "  true  causes." 

II.  Suggestions  recorded  in  the  history  of  Science. 

1.  As  to  the  Fact.    —    A  frequently  recurring  doctrine  in  all  ages. 

—  Always  met  with  denials,  under  the  impression  that  it  pre- 
cludes divine  agency. 

2.  As  to  the  Conditions. 
(1)  Modes  of  the  organism. 

(a)  Inheritance,  or  transmission  of  identity.    —    Centripetal. 
(6)  Variability,  or  capacity  for  change.    —    Centrifugal. 

(c)  Prolonged  embryonic  development.    ( Vestiges  of  Creation). 

(d)  Acceleration  of  development.    (Hyatt, as  in  Lect.  XLIX). 

(«)  Acceleration  and  retardation  of  development  and  growth.    (Cope :  Method 

of  Creation ;  Or  iff  in  of  Genera). 

(/)  Repetitive  addition.    (Cope:  Method  of  Creation), 
(g )  Relation  to  grade  of  organ  or  animal.     —    Cope's  "  grade  influence." 
(A)  Frequency  of  exercise.      —       Equivalent  to  "use  and  effort,"  (Cope),  and 


—  104  — 

"  use  and  disuse,"  (DeMaillet,  Lamarck,  Darwin).  —  Includes  "  animal 
motion,"  suggested  by  Cope  as  "  cause  of  animal  evolution."  (Cope,  P. 
Amer.  A.  A.  Set.,  Aug.,  1877;  Penn  Monthly,  Jau.  1878  ;  Origin  of  the  spe- 
cialized teeth  of  Carnivora,  Am.  Nat.,  Mar.  1879).  —  This  not  a  cause, 
since  whatever  change  ensues  is  caused  directly  (instrumen tally)  by  the 
physiological  action. 

(2)  Modes  of  the  environment.       —       Determining  the  "  struggle  for  existence." 
(Darwin :  Origin  of  species). 

(a)  Physical  surroundings.     —       (DeMaillet:  Telliamed ;  Lamarck:  Philos. 

Zool). 

(b)  Competition  with  fellow-beings. 

(<r)  Extermination  of  unfittest.  —  Whereby  "  fittest,"  *".  e.  best,  survive,  to 
continue  the  species  and  perpetuate  acquired  modifications.  —  The 
characteristic  conception  of  "  Darwinism,"  which  thus  leaves  all  causation 
of  variation  untouched. 

3.  As  to  instrumentalities  and  agencies. 

(1)  Reproductive  activities.    —    Normal.    —    With  saltative  progress.    (Huxley). 
—    Parthenogenesis.    (Kolliker). 

(2)  Influence  of  enviroment.    —    This  a  misapprehension. 

(3)  Physiological  activities,  organizing  material  into  forms  correlated  to  the  envi- 
ronment.   —    The  "growth-force"  of  Cope. 

(4)  Inherent  conation  toward  certain  modifications  of  structure.    (Lamarck).     — 
Hardly  distinguishable  from  the  coordinative  force  in  physiological  work. 
(See  next  point). 

(5)  Intelligent  selection.   (Cope :  MeUicd  of  Creation,  29;   Consciousness  in  Evolution, 
Penn  Monthly,  Aug.,  1875.    Compare  Origin  of  the  Will,  Penu  Monthly,  June, 
1877). 

(a)  Automatic  or  unconscious.    —    A  directive  influence  exerted  upon  physi- 
ological activities. 

(b)  Voluntary  or  conscious.    —    Choice  of  means  bv  which  the  animal  seeks 
its  own  well-being.    —    Part  origin  of  "  struggle  for  existence." 

4.  As  to  causes. 

(1)  Environment,  Natural  Selection,  Use,  etc.     —     These  not  real  causes,  but  sub- 
causes.    —    Environment  only  the  condition  of  a  certain  kind  of  physiological 
activity.     —    Natural  Selection  only  the  outcome  or  remainder,  after  active 
cause  has  made  certain  subtractions.     —      Use  only  the  condition  of  more  in- 
tense physiological  action  in  certain  organs. 

(2)  Inherent  tendency  to  improve  or  change.       —       Either  co&perative  or  all- 
underlying  and  all-conditioning.       —       In  either  case,  only  an  effect  which 
conditions  other  effects. 

(3)  The  Unknowable.  (Spencer :  First  Principles,  etc). 

(4)  A  Supernatural  Power. 

(a)  The  real  cause  is  something  which  cannot  be  construed  as  an  effect. 
(&)  It  acts  iw  thi  organism,  through 'physiological  processes,  and  not  at  a  dis- 
tance, in  the  environment 

(c)  It  acts  with  discernment,  cognizing  a  certain  correlation  as  an  end,  and 

directing  the  eperations  of  life  toward  that  end  —  Cognition  implies 
intelligence;  direction,  will  and  motive  for  willing;  the  cause  is  therefore,  a 
personality. 

(d)  The  cause  is  not  the  animal  or  plant  in  which  the  modification  takes 
place.     —      Nor  any  other  animal.     —      It  is,  therefore,  a  supernatural 
Cause. 


—  105  — 

2.  Theories  are  based  principally  on  views  in  reference  to  condi- 
ditions  and  instrumentalities,  and  the  scope  of  application  of  the 
principle  of  evolution. 
III.  Conspectus  of  Theories  of  the  Origin  of  Species. 

1.  IMMEDIATE  CHEATION.    (Material  Discontinuity). 

(1)  in  single  Pairs,         .         .         , {     fgEftgg; 

(2)  In  Colonies, L.  Agasniz,  etc. 

2.  MEDIATE  CREATION  or  DERIVATION.     (Material  Continuity  or  Evo- 

lution). 

(1)  Through  a  Force  which  is  a  mode  of  the  Unknowable.        .       .       .       Spencer. 

(2)  Through  so-called  external  influences  or  forces  acting  on  the   generative. 


(o)  Physical  surroundings.     (Transmutation).        '.       .       .       .       De  Maillet 
(6)  The  same  and  conflicts  of  individuals  (Natural  Selection)  with  use  and  dis- 
use, 
(aa)  Embracing  the  psychic  nature  of  man. 

(aaa)  By  insensible  gradations  (Variative).       .      .       Darwin,  ffaecktl. 
(666)  With  occasional  leaps  (Saltative)  and  with  a  molecular  selec- 
tion  Huxley. 

(66)  Excluding  the  body  and  mind  of  man,       ....         Wallace. 
(8)  Through  an  internal  force,  conditioned  by  the  environment,  and  by  use  and 
disuse. 

(a)  An  inherent  nisus  toward  improvement.  (Conative-variative).  j  #f  j^^re 
(6)  Genetic  processes  exclusively.    (Filiative). 

(oa)  Prolonged  embryonic  development.  (Variative-filiative).     "  Vestiges." 

(aaa)  Heterogeneous  generation Kcettiker,  Ferris. 

(666)  Homogeneous  generation Parsons,  Owen. 

(c)  An  immaterial  force,  genetic  processes  being  the  instrument.    Saltations 
admitted. 

(oa)  Excluding  the  psychic  nature  of  man.     .       .       .        Mivart,  Nxgelf. 
(66)  Including  the  psychic  nature  of  man. 

(aaa)  Through  ordinary  generation Huxley. 

(666)  Accelerated  development Hyatt. 

(ccc)  Accelerated  and  retarded  development Cope. 

IV.  Conclusions  eliminated. 

1.  Evolution  is  the   designation  of  a  general  method  employed  in 

nature  for  the  effectuation  of  results.    —    "  Development  "  em- 
ployed in  nearly  the  same  sense. 

2.  "  Darwinism  "  is  the  designation  of  a  particular  theory  of  the  in- 

strumentalities by  which  the  evolution  is  effected.  There- 

fore not  synonymous  with  evolution.    -  •     May  be  a  false  or  in- 
sufficient doctrine,  while  evolution  is  a  true  one.  Cannot, 
by  any  means,  claim  to  be  an  adequate  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  organic  life. 
J                                                               f 


—  106— 

LI.   PRIMITIVE  MEN, 
THEIR  ETHNOLOGY,  AFFILIATIONS  AND  DISPERSION. 

A.  WINCHKLL:  Preadamites,  8vo.,  Chicago,  1880,  ch.vi,  x,  xi,  xiv,  xix-xxv;  O. 
PKSCHEL:  The  Races  of  Man,  N.  Y,,1876;  P.  TOPINARD  :  Anthropology,  London,  If  78;  C. 
VOGT  :  Lectures  on  Man,  London,  1864. 

I.  The  terms  Archaeology,  Ethnology  and  Anthropology.    — 

Prehistoric  Anthropology  to  be  investigated  on  the  same  basis 
as  extinct  life  in  general.  —  The  Archaeological  data  discussed 
in  Part  I,  (Lecture  XXII). 

II.  Primitive  Types  of  Mankind. 
2.  Existing  races  of  men.    (Peschel). 

(1)  The  Black  Races. 

(a)  Australians  and  Tasmanians.    —    (6) 'Papuans  and  Negritos.     —    (^Hot- 
tentots and  Bushmen.    —    (d)  Negroes. 

(2)  The  Brown  Races. 

(a)  Mongoloids:  Malays,  Chinese,  Altaians,  Japanese,  Americans. 
(6)  Dravidians. 

(3)  The  White  Race  or  Mediterraneans. 

(a)  Hamites.    ' —    (6)  Semites.    —    (c)  Japhetites  or  Aryans. 

2.  Affinities  among  ethnic  types.     —     Gradations.    —     The  lower 

not  descended  from  the  higher. 

3.  The  primitive  races  low  in  rank.      —      Australians  probably  ap- 

proximate the  earliest  men.  —  Higher  races  later  in  appear- 
ance. 

III.  Hypothetical  continent  of  Lemuria. 

1.  Evidences  of  its  former  existence. 

(1)  Zoological.    —    Lemurs.    —    Birds.    —    Men. 

(2)  Botanical.    —    Palms. 

(3)  Geological.     —     Shoals  in  Indian  Ocean.     —     The  entire  area  in  process  of 
subsidence. 

2.  Here  was  perhaps  the  cradle  of  mankind. 

IV.  Dispersion  of  Mankind  from  Lemuria. 

1.  Primordial  bifurcation  of  the  human  stock.     —      Australian  and 

African  stems.    —    Why  not  assigned  to  distinct  origins. 

2.  Dispersion  of  the  Australian  branch. 

(1)  Australians.    —    Connection  with  India.    —     The  Tasmanian  differentiation. 

(2)  Papuans.    —    Retral  movement  to  the  Andamans.    —    Divergence  to  Luzon, 
Formosa,  and  perhaps  Japan.    —     Melanesian  expansion.    —     Oceanic  im- 
provement of  the  type. 

3.  Dispersion  of  the  African  branch.     (Ulotrichs). 

(1)  The  Hottentot  type.    —    Moved  from  eastern  equatorial  Africa. 

(2)  The  Negro  type.    —    Kaffir  Bantus  drove  Hottentots  southward.    —    The  Sou- 
dans  spread  westward. 

(3)  Many  Africans  not  of  these  races. 

4.  Else  and  dispersion  of  Mongoloids. 


—  107  — 

(1)  Malayan  stem.    —    Regress  to  Madagascar.    —    Pacific  expansion.    —     Mi- 
cronesian  type.    —    Polynesian  type.    —    Extreme  eastward  advances. 

(2)  Thibeto-Burmese  stem. 

(3)  Chinese  stem.    —    Primitive  seat.     —     Migration. 

(4)  Altaian  stem.     —      The  northeastward  stream.       —       Divergence  of  Turks , 
Mandchus,  Tunguses,  Samoyeds  and  Ural-Altaics. 

(5)  Troglodytic  stem.    —    Dispersion  in  N.  Africa  and  in  Europe. 

(6)  American  Sedentes.     —     Access  from  Asia.     —     Their  characteristics.      — 
Their  dispersion  over  N.  America,  Mexico,  Central  America,  Granada,  Peru, 
Chile  and  Patagonia.     —    Copper-mining,  mounds,  mesa-ruins,  Mexican  and 
Peruvian  civilizations. 

(7)  American  Vagantes.    —   Contrasted  with  Sedentes.     —     Compared  with  Ma- 
lays.   —    Access  by  Polynesia.    —    Indications  of  former  continental  connec- 
tion.   —    Spread  over  the  plains  of  S.  America.     —    Drove  back  Sedentes  in 
N.  America. 

5.  Rise  and  dispersion  of  Dravidians. 

6.  Rise  and  dispersion  of  Mediterraneans. 

(1)  Hamitic  Family.     —     Displaced  Mongoloids  everywhere.     —    Possessed  all 
Western  Asia,  N.  Africa  and  Southern  Europe. 

(2)  Semitic  Family.     —     Absorbed  Hamites  in  Asia.     —     Semitic  empires.     — 
Maritime  Phoanicians. 

(3)  Aryan  Family.     —     Asiatic  branch.     —     European  branch.     —     TJltra- 
Euxine  and  cis-Euxine  streams.    —    Ulterior  ramifications. 

LH  THE  ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 

A.  WmcHELL  :  Preadamiles,  ch.  xxvii ;  SIK  C.  LYELL  :  The  Geological  Antiquity  of 
Mankind ;  3.  C.  SOUTHALL:  The  Recent  Origin  of  Man,  Phil.,  1875 ;  The  Epoch  of  the  Mam- 
moth, Phil.,  1878 ;  E.  ANDREWS,  A.  J.  S.,  II,  xlv,  180;  Meth.  Quar.  Rev.,  Dec.  1876,  Jan.  1877. 
Three  aspects  of  discussion  on  this  question. 

I.  Epoch  of  the  First  Men. 

1.  No  positive  data  bearing  directly  on  the  question. 

2.  They  probably  appeared  in  Tertiary  time. 

II.  Epoch  of  the  Stone  Polk  of  Europe.  Their  antiquity 

long  exaggerated.    (Haeckel :  Natuerlich.  Schcepf.,  595,  etc). 
Grounds  of  such  opinions. 
<  1.  Preglacial  remains  of  other  animals  mistaken  for  human  remains. 

(1)  Notched  bones  found  at  St.  Prest,  France,  with  Pliocene  elephant     —    Marks 
made  by  a  contemporary  rodent. 

(2)  Cut  bones  of  Leognan,  of  Miocene  age.    —     Marked  by  a  carnivorous  fish. 

(3)  Flints  in  Miocene  of  Thenay.    (Congr.  Internat.,  1867,  67).     -  -     Not  artificially 
produced. 

2.  Human  remains  erroneously  supposed  preglacial. 

(1)  The  Guadeloupe  skeletons.  (D.  579;  C.  Konig,  Phil.  Trans.,  1814, 107). 

(2)  Human  skeleton  with  Pliocene  elephant  at  Le  Puy-en-Velay.  (Topinard :  An- 
thropology, 436;   Caspari:    Urgesch.  der  Menschheit,i,9A).        —'-   Skeleton  not 
in  same  lava  as  elephant,  but  a  later  lava. 

(3)  Flints  in  the  gravels  of  the  Somme.       —       But  these  gravels  prove  to  be  post- 
glacial. 


—  108  — 

/  (4)  Human  skull  from  Pliocene  of  Colle  del  Vento.    (Issel,  Cong.  Internal.,  1867,  75, 
156;.    —    The  fact  not  scientifically  established. 

(5)  Human  pelvis  in  a  preglacial  deposit  at  Natchez.  —   The  bone  fell  down  from 
the  top  of  a  bluff.    ( Lyell :  Antiq.  Man.} 

(6)  Remains  in  Victoria  cave,  Eng.  (Geike).     —     The  deposits  probably  not  pre- 
glacial.   (J.  Evans,  Add.  Ocol.  Soc.  Lond.,  19  Feb..  187o  ;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  x,  229-32). 

3.  Man  not  preglacial  in  Europe.  (Huxley,  Nature,  22  Aug.,  1878,  448. 
Comp.  Haeckel,  op  cit.,  594).  •  But  he  witnessed  the  decline 
of  the  glaciers. 

'  4.  Man  probably  of  Pliocene  age  in  California.     (J.  D.  Whitney).    — 
Probably  of  Mongoloid  type. 

5.  Remoteness  of  the  glacial  decline  in  Europe. 

(1)  Human  history  and  movements  in  glacial  and  preglacial  times. 

(2)  Grounds  of  belief  in  high  antiquity  of  glacial  epoch. 

(a)  Astronomical  hypothesis  of  glacial  periods.  (Lect.  XLV,  V). 

(6)  Cotemporaneousness  of  man  with  extinct    animals.    (Lect.  XXII).      — 

Extinctions  not  necessarily  remote. 

(aa)  Gigantic  extinct  birds  of  New  Zealand  and  the  Mascarenes.  (D.  580-1 ; 
L.  558-60;  Encyc.  Brit.,  9th  ed.,  iii,  731;  A.  Milne-Edwards,  Comptes 
Rendus,  May,  1875;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  x,  233.  Comp.  A.  Giinther,  Nature,  28 
July,  1874).  —  Kytina  Stelleri,  Balcena  Biscay ensis,  Trojau  shells. 

(66)  Species  approaching  extinction.  —  Great  auk,  Labrador  duck, 
capercailzee,  great  aurochs,  sequoia  and  many  familiar  species. 

(cc)  Extinctions  apparently  recent.  —  Mammoth,  Mastodon,  (Am.  Nat., 
April,  1879,  269.  —  Irish  elk. 

(3)  Magnitude  of  geological  changes  since  man's  advent.     —     Real  greatness  of 
those  changes. 

(a)  Remoteness  in  time  produces  an  illusion.  —  Historic  times  record  great 
geologic  events.  —  Geographical  changes  in  China.  (Pumpelly,  Smiths. 
Oontr..  4to.,  xv,  art.  iv ;  Von  Richthofen :  China,  285-7).  --  Changes  in 
basin  of  Black  and  Caspian  seas.  (W.:  Pread.,  440  and  re/.). 

(6)  Retreat  of  Alpine  glaciers.  (Tyndall:  Hours  of  Exercise  in  the  Alps;  W.: 
Pread.,  437-8>.  —  Existing  stumps  in  America.  (Lect.  XIX,  III,  6). 

6.  Estimates  of  prehistoric  archaeologists.      —      Appearance  of  Iron 

in  the  West  2700   years  ago.  Age  of  Bronze,  2700  to 

4000  years.    —     Age  of  Polished  Stone,  4000  to  6000  years. 
Age  of  Reindeer,  7000.    —    These  results  accordant  with  tradi- 
tional indications.   (W.:  Pread.,  442). 

v  HI.  Epoch  of  Mediterranean  Race.  Must  exceed  somewhat 

the  historic  antiquity  of  Egypt.  —  Era  of  Menes  according  to 
Lepsius,  3892  B.  C.  —  According  to  Mariette  and  Lenormant, 
5004  B.  C. 

Lffl.    ESTIMATION  OF  GEOLOGICAL   TIME. 

I.  Oppressiveness  of  Geological  .aSons. 

1.  Geological  changelessness  of  some  historic  spots.  —  Plymouth 
Rock.  —  The  Acropolis.  —  Mont  Blanc. 


—  109  — 

2.  Permanence  of  the  aspects  of  the  heavens. 

3.  Slowness  of  shore-erosions  and  of  sedimentary  processes. 

4.  Time  required  for  material  of  a  bed  of  coal. 

4.  Such  facts  tend  to  produce  an  exaggerated  impression  of  the  vast- 
ness  of  geological  periods.  —  We  need  some  comprehensible 
unit  of  measure. 

II.  Cosmical  Limitations  of   Terrestrial  past  Duration. 

1.  Age  of  the  Sun's  heat.      (Sir  W.  Thomson,  Phil.  Mag.,  viii,  1854  ; 

Macmillari's  Mag.,  March,  1862;  Address  Brit.  Assoc.,  Edinb.,  re- 
print, A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ii,  286,  Oct.  1861 ;  Croll :  Climate  and  Time, 
ch.  xxi). 

(1)  Meteoric  theory  of  solar  heat,  (Mayer :    Celestial  Dynamics,  Youmans'  ed.,  261). 

(2)  Contractional  theory.     (Helmholtz,  Phil.  Mag.,  xi,  1856 ;   W.  Thomson,  Phil. 
Mag.,  viii). 

(3)  Solar  heat  probably,  in  large  part,  a  residuum  of  the  primitive  temperature. 
(W.,  Sketches,  ch.  xxxviii ;  Croll :  aim.  ard  Time,  349,  seq). 

2.  Duration  of  the  secular  cooling  of  the  earth.    --    A  maximum  of 

100,000,000  years  since  commencement  of  incrustation.  (Thom- 
son and  Tait :  Nat.  Phil.  ;  Croll :  dim.  and  Time,  335).  -  -  Actual 
calculation  results  in  80,000,000.years.  —  Eeade  demands 
500,000,000  years  since  sedimentation  began  in  Europe.  (Ann. 
Addr.  Liverpool  Geol.  Soc.,  1876 ;  A.  J.  S.,  1876,  462). 

3.  Duration  of  tidal  retardation  of  earth's  rotation.    --    The  investi- 

gation not  yet  made. 

III.  Calculation  based  on  relative   thickness  of  Sediments. 

(D.,  381,  481,  585). 

1.  Account  cannot  be  taken  of  relative  energy  of  geologic  forces.    — 

Probably  greatest  in  the  world's  early  history. 

2.  Maximum  thickness  of  sediments,  limestone  being  multiplied 

five-fold.  (D.,  381):  Archaean,  230,000  ft;  Palaeozoic,  153,000; 
Mesozoic,  38,300;  Csenozoic,  12,800.  --  Joining  palaeontological 
with  stratigraphical  evidences,  Devonian  +  Triassio  = 
Jurassic  +  Cretaceous  +  Csenozoic.  (Ramsay,  Proc.  Roy. 
Soc., No.  152,1874). 

3.  The  Pyrolithic  seon  probably  as  long  as  the  Archaean. 

4.  Distribution  of  the  Earth's  incrusted  life-time.  (Comp.  D.,  591). 

Percentages.  Years. 

PYKOLITHIC  MOTS.    (Fire-crust),                       34.6  34,600,000 

ARCH^AN^EON.    (Strata),                                  34.6  34,600,000 

PALEOZOIC  ^ON,                                                23.1  23,100,000 

Silurian,                                                          15-6  15,600,000 

Lower  Silurian,  (Cambrian),                     13.2  13,200,000 


—  no  — 

Percentages.  Years, 

Potsdam  Sandstone,                                  1.9  1,900,000 
Rest  of  Lower  Silurian,                           11.3  11 ,300,000 
Upper  Silurian,                                              2.4  2,400,000 
Devonian,                                                          3.8  3,800,000 
Carboniferous,                                                  3.8  3,800,000 
MESOZOIC  jEoN,                                                    5.8  5,800,000 
Triassic,                                                           1.78  1,780,000 
Jurassic,                                                           2.22  2,220,000 
Cretaceous,                                                      1.78  1,780,000 
OENOZOIC  ^Eou,                                                     1.9  1,900,000 
Tertiary,                                                            1.5  1,500,000 
Post-Tertiary,                                                    0.4  400,000 
Glacial,     '                                                      0.2  200,000 
Champlain,                                                    0.2  200,000 
5.  This  result  for  post-glacial  time  perhaps  too  great.    —  One  hun- 
dred millions  too  high  an  aggregate,  and  Pyrolithic  and  Arch- 
aean relatively   longer  than  assumed. 

IV.  Calculation  based  on  Eccentricity  of  Earth.' s  Orbit. 

1.  Supposes  maximum  eccentricity  the  indirect  cause  of  northern 

glacial  periods.     (Lect.  XLV,  V,  4). 

2.  Last  occurring  epochs  of  maximum  eccentricity  before  1800  A.  D.: — 

100,000  years  (.0473),  210,000  years  (.0575),  310,000  years,  (.0424), 
750,000  years  (.0575),  850,000  years  (0747).  Those  at  210,000 

and  850,000  years  the  most  striking. 

3.  Croll  regards  last  Glacial  Period  as  extending  from  240,000  to 

80,000  years  ago.    (Croll :  dim.  and  Time,  325,  355).  The 

Miocene  glaciation  he  puts  at  850,000  years  ago,  and  the  Eocene 
at  2,500,000  years.  (Croll :  op  cit.,  358-9).  —  These  figures  ap- 
parently too  high.  —  The  last  mid-glacial  epoch  perhaps 
100,000  years  ago.  —  Then,  since  decline  of  glaciers,  say  50,000 
years. 

V.  Calculations  based  on  Erosion  and  Deposition. 

1.  Gorge  of  Niagara.  (D.,  219,  590;  L.  14  ;  Hall:  Oeol.  N.  Y.,  iv,  ch. 
xx ;  K.  Bakewell:  Geol,  260;  J.  Marcou,  Butt.  Soc.  Oeol.  de 
France,  II,  xxii,  190,  529 ;  Ramsay,  Q.  J.  Q.  Soc.,  xv,  1859 ;  T. 
Belt,  Q.  J.  Sci.,  April,  1875).  —  Assuming  rate  of  Erosion 
uniform. 

(1)  R.  Bakewell,  S^feet  per  year,  12,300  years. 

(2)  Lyell  and  Hall,  1  foot  per  year,  35,000  years. 

(3)  E.  Desor,  .03  foot  per  year,  1,232,000  years. 

(4)  J.  Marcou,  .52  foot  per  year,  71,000  years. 


—  Ill  — 

(5)  T.  Belt,  0.1  foot  per  year,  200,000  years  for  whole  gorge,  but  only  20,000  for  that 
below  the  whirlpool.  —  The  remainder  of  the  gorge,  and  all  the  old  one,  being 
considered  preglacial.  —  Last  result  accords  best  with  limits  of  time  at  our 
disposal  for  terrestrial  history. 

2.  Gorge  of  Mississippi,  at  St.   Anthony.     (N.  H.  Winchell,  Q.  J.  O. 

Soc.,  Lond.,  Nov.  1878,  880).  --  Eate  from  1680  to  1856,  5.15  feet 
per  year ;  time  from  Fort  Snelllng,  8202  years.  --  This  a  post- 
glacial erosion. 

3.  Deltas  of  rivers. 

(1)  The  Mississippi  delta  about  5000  years.    (Humphreys  and  Abbot,  Hydraulics  of 
the  Miss.,  1861.  Comp.  L.  28). 

(2)  The  Kile  delta,  6350  years.    (De  Lanoye :  Barneses  the  Great.  Comp.  L.  28). 

4.  Terraces  of  Lake  Michigan.     (E.  Andrews,  Trans.  Chic.  Acad.  Sci., 

ii;  Southall:  Epoch  of  the  Mammoth,  ch.  xxii).  Total    time 

since  Glacial  Period,  5300  to  7500  years. 

5.  General  continental  erosion.     (L.,  10-11 ;    Croll :    dim.  and  Time, 

ch.  xx  ;  Geikie,  Trans.  Geol.  Soc.  Glasgow,  iii ;  Jukes  and  Geike  : 
Man.  Geol,  ch.  xxv ;  A.  Tylor,  Phil.  Mag.,  1850).  -  -  Subsidence 
in  basin  of  Danube,  one  foot  in  6846  years ;  of  Mississippi,  4640  ; 
of  Nile,  4723 ;  Ganges,  1751 ;  Rhone,  1528  ;  Hoang-Ho,  1464 ;  Po, 
729  years. 

LIV.  LIMITATIONS  OF  THE  EXISTING  ORDER. 


I.  Meaning  of  Change  in  the  natural  "World. 

1.  It  implies  a  beginning. 

2.  It  implies  an  end. 

3.  The  idea  of  endless  cycles  physically  absurd.     (W.,  Sketches,  ch. 

xxxv).  —  Perpetual  motion  equally  impossible  in  human  and 
in  the  cosmic  mechanism.  —  All  force  seeking  a  state  of  equi- 
librium. —  Finite  time  suffices  for  the  accomplishment  of  any 
work,  however  vast. 

4.  Recognized  principle  of  degradation  of  physical  organisms. 

Dissipation  of  energy.  (W.,  Mich.  Jour.  Educ.,  Aug.  1860,  273  ; 
Ladies'  Repos.,  Gin.,  Jan.,  1864  ;  College  Courant,  New  Haven,  Jul. 
12  and  17,  1869 ;  Sketches  of  Creation,  1870  ;  Sir.  W.  Thomson  ; 
Helmholtz  ;  Spencer :  First  Prin.,  450,  etc). 

II.  Ultimate  tendencies  of  Terrestrial  Erosions.  (Lect.  XXVII, 

XXVIII ;  W.,  Sketches,  ch.  xxxvi). 

1.  Wastage  of  soils.  —  Disappearance  of  vegetation  and  aridity  of 
climate.  —  Sinking  of  river-channels.  (D.,  641-2).  — 
Filling  of  lakes  and  seas.  —  Transfer  of  elevations  to  deltas 
and  sea-bottoms.  —  Great  American  Desert.  (Wheeler,  Prelim. 
Rep.,  1871,  20 ;  Powell :  Colorado). 


—  112  — 

2.  Growth  of  Delta  of  Mississippi  river.  (D.,  651-2  ;  Humphreys  and 
Abbot :  Hydraul  Miss,,  141,  418,  etc).  Total  annual  contribution, 
one  square  mile  268  feet  deep.  —  Annual  advance  of  delta. 
338  feet.  —  Inevitable  destruction  of  the  upland. 

4.  Lowering  of  continental  surfaces. 

(1)  Sundry  estimates.    (Lect.  XXVIII,  LIII). 

(2)  Relative  masses  of  continents  and  oceans. 

(o)  Mean  height  of  land.  (Kriimmel,  Qottingen  Acad.;  G.  Leipoldt,  Pefermann's 
MMheilungen,  April,  1875 ;  Nature,  15  April,  1875 ;  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  ix,  482 ;  Na- 
ture, 3  Feb.,  1879,  348-9).  —  Europe,  300  m. ;  Asia  and  Africa,  500  m. ; 
America,  330  m. ;  Australia,  250  m. ;  mean,  426  m.,  or  0.0566  mile.  —  Sur- 
face ratio  of  land  to  water,  1:2.75.  —  Ratio  of  volume  of  land  to  water, 
1:22.4. 

(b)  Continents  above  sea-level  transferred  to  sea-basin  would  raise  the  sea 
112.4  m.,  or  368.2  ft.  above  the  land.  —  This  doctrine  enunciated  by 
Buffon.  ( T/ieone  de  la  Terre.)  —  But  denounced  by  the  Sorbonne.  (Ly- 
ell :  Prin.,  41 ;  Buffon :  Hist.  Nat.,  tome  v,  ed.  de  1'Imp.  royale,  Paris,  1769. 

III.  Progressive  Terrestrial  Refrigeration.    (Lect.  XLI). 

IV.  Absorption  of  Sea  And  Atmosphere.    (Lect.  XLI,  V.2).    - 

Observed  secular  desiccation  of  the  continents.     ( J.  D.  Whitney, 
Amer.  Nat.,  x,  513,  Sep.,  1876). 

V.  Coincidence  of  Axial  and  Orbital  Periods  of  the  Earth. 

(Helmholtz:  Interaction  Nat.  For.,  Youmans'  ed.,  243).      —     Six 
months  insufferable  heat  and  six  months  insufferable  cold. 

VI.  Solar  Refrigeration.    (Lect.  XLI).    -  -    Vast  emission  of  heat. 

—    No  known  source  of  adequate  supply. 

VII.  Final   Aggregation  of  Matter.     (W.,  ch.  xxxix  ;    Spencer  : 

First  Prin.,  480,  seq. ;  Fiske  :  Cosmic  Philos). 

1.  Conditions  of  Stability  of  our  System.    (Laplace).     —     The  plan- 

ets solid  and  their  motions  in  vacuo.  Neither  condition 

fulfilled. 

2.  A  resisting  medium  in  space.      (B.   Stewart:  Conservation  of  En- 

ergy, 96 ;  Fiske :  Cosmic  Phil.    Also,  Spencer,  Cousin,  etc.). 

3.  Shortening  of  periods  of  rotation.     —    Encke's  comet.    --    The 

fact  denied.        —        Illustration  from  meteoroids  in  our  atmo- 
sphere.    —    Inevitable  precipitation  of  planetary  matter. 

4.  Process  of  aggregation  in  other  systems. 

VIII.  Glimpses  Beyond. 

1.  Question  of  final  aggregation  of  all  matter.    --    The  result  incon- 

ceivable. 

2.  There  must  be  a  reorganizing  principle  active  in   nature.     — 

But  the  forces  of  matter  incapable  of  effecting  a  cosmic  resurrec- 
tion, 
a  Cycles  of  matter.  (W.,ch.xl). 


—  113  — 
LV.  WORLD-LIFE. 

A.  WINCHELL:  Geology  of  the  Stars,  Half-Hour  .Recreations  in  Popular  Science,  279- 
82 ;  ENNIS  :  Origin  of  the  Stars. 

I.  General  Cosmic  Morphology. 

1.  The  deepest  principle  of  change   in  cosmic  existence  is  expressed 

by  the  word  cooling.  —  Other  activities  come  into  play  con- 
comitantly. 

2.  The  three  great  cosmic  forces  are  heat  and  atomic  and  molar  at- 

tractions. 

3.  A  world's  life-time  is  but  a  progressive  cooling,  with  its  incidents 

and  consequents.  —  It  passes  successively  through  all  the 
phases  and  stages  known  to  cosmogony. 

4.  Cosmic  life-times  have  begun  at  different  epochs,  and  proceed  at 

different  rates.  —  Probably  beginning  and  ending  continu- 
ually.  —  Hence,  contemporary  cosmic  existence,  analogously 
to  the  kingdoms  of  organic  life,  presents  a  simultaneous  panor- 
ama of  a  world's  life-time.  The  taxonomy  of  the  heavens 
is  therefore  a  cosmic  embryology  and  a  cosmic  palaeontology. 
(Lect.  XLIX,  IV,  5). 

II.  Nebular  Stage. 

1.  Diffused  Phase  or  Cosmical  Dust.    (Lect.  XLII).  Cosmic 

atoms  gathering,  condensing  and  developing  heat.  An 

antecedent  phase  of  matter  supposable,  in  the  form  of  a  contin- 
uous, cold,  or  heated  gas.  (Ennis :  Origin  of  the  Stars,  sec.  xvi). 

—  But  the  conception  not  yet  correlated  to  the  normal  nebu- 
lous condition. 

2.  Normal  Nebular  Phase.      —     Mineral  mist  floating  in  a  gaseous 

medium.  —  Spectrum  of  one,  two  or  three  bright  lines.  (Lect. 
XLII,  VI,  4).  —  Some  of  the  irresolvable  nebulse. 
3  Continuous  Fire-mist  Phase.  —  Mineral  mist  increased  in 
quantity,  but  the  mass  remaining  homogeneous  and  mostly  gas- 
eous. —  Spectrum  of  bright  lines  superposed  on  an  extremely 
faint,  continuous  spt  ctrum  of  scarcely  appreciable  breadth.  — 
Certain  irresolvable  nebulse  ;  also,  a  few  "  stars." 

Annulations  perhaps  take  place  in  this  phase.  The  primitive 
nebula  is  resolved  into  solar  nebulas,  in  which  other  annulations 
succeed.  —  Annular,  and  probably  spiral  and  curved  nebulse. 

—  Saturnian  rings  persisting  like  a  preserved  embryo. 

4.  Discontinuous  Fire-mist  Phase.     —      Segregation  and  accumula- 
tion around  local  nuclei,  without  annulation.       —        Fire-mist 
or  photospheric  matter  still  in  small  proportion  to  gaseous.      — 
K 


—  114  — 

Bright  line  spectrum  superposed  on  a  faint  continuous  spec- 
trum.   —     Certain  resolvable  nebulse.  Compare  nebula  in 
Draco. 
in.  Stellar  Stage. 

1.  Nucleating  Phase.        —        Increasing  amount  of  photospheric 

matter.    —    Nuclear  condensation  apparent.     —     Sun  systems 
and  planetary  segregations  past  the  phase  of  annulation. 
Bright  lines  over  a  continuous  spectrum.    —      Planetary  Nebulse 
and  Nebulous  Stars. 

2.  Nucleated  Phase.  Liquid  precipitate  increased.     -         Tem- 

perature and  luminosity  so  diminished  that  the  absorbent  capac- 
ity of  the  still  gaseous  atmosphere  just  equals  the  emissive 
power  of  the  nucleus  and  photosphere.  —  Spectrum  continu- 
ous. —  Certain  star  clusters  and  most  resolvable  nebulse. 

3.  Sirian  Phase.      —     Atmosphere  of  great  depth  and  tension. 

Absorbent  capacity  exceeds  emissive.  —  Spectrum  of  dark 
lines  of  extraordinary  breadth.  —  White  stars. 

4.  Arcturan  Phase.      —     Atmosphere  diminished  in  depth  and  ten- 

sion. Spectrum  the  normal  solar  spectrum.      —       Yellow 

Stars. 

(1)  Some  fixed  stars  in  the  last  two  stages  the  centres  of  cosmic  systems. 

(2)  Some  have  their  attendant  worlds  still  luminous, 
(a)  Sirius  a  sun  with  four  still  luminous  planets. 

(6)  Procyon,  Rigel,  Aldebaran,  Arcturus,  Antares,  Zeta  Cancri,  etc.,  have  each 

one  or  more, 
(c)  Some  of  these  companions  have  still  smaller  attendants,  as  Mu  Lupi,  Eta 

Lyrse,  Xi  Cancri,  12  Lyncis,  Theta  Orioiiis.     —     These  are  still-luminous 

satellites. 

5.  Solar  Phase.     —     Photosphere  thinned  to  point  of  eruption  by 

upward  vortical  movements.  —  Maculation  by  condensation 
of  the  cooled  vapors.  —  Incipient  variability.  —  Our  sun. 
Q.  Variable  Phase.  —  Photosphere  periodically  darkened  by  the 
great  amount  of  macular  matter  floating  on  photosphere. 
Approaching  total  liquefaction.  —  Periodic  and  Irregular 
Stars.  —  Their  periods  from  a  few  hours  to  500  days,  and 
range  of  brightness  from  fourth  to  ninth  magnitude.  (Argelander 
in  Humboldt's  Cosmos,  iii). 

7.  Molten  Phase.      —       Photospheric  matter  exhausted.  A 

molten  globe.  —  Spectrum  continuous.  —  Some  star 
clusters  and  resolvable  nebulse. 

8.  Incrustive  Phase.    —    Primitive  crust.    --    The  light  ruddy.    — 

Incipient  darkening.  —  Spectrum  of  dark  lines,  but  giving 
the  ensemble  of  vaporosity.  —  Red  Stars. 


—  115  — 

9.  Eruptive  Phase.  —  Crust  darkened,  but  disrupted  at  intervals, 
giving  spasmodic  luminosity.  (Lect.  XXXIX,  IV).  *  •  Spec- 
trum returns  to  vaporous  or  other  earlier  indications.  -  -  Tem- 
porary Stars.  (Ennis  :  Origin  of  the  Stars,  123-8). 

IV.  Planetary  Stage. 

1.  Jovian  Phase.  The  stormy  condition.    (Lect.  XXXIX,  IV- 

VI). 

2.  Terrestrial  Phase.    —    Culmination  of  organic  career.  —    Move- 

ments of  atmosphere  comparable  with  those   of  solar  photo- 
sphere      —      Earth  and  some  satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn. 

3.  Martial  Phase.      —     Planetary  senescence.      —      Mars  and  some 

satellites  of  older  planets. 

4.  Retarded  Rotary  Phase.  Work  of  tidal   retardation    far 

advanced.   (Lect.  LIV,  V).        —        Moon,  Mars  and  some  older 
satellites. 

5.  Lunar  Phase.  Planetary  death.   (Lect.  XLI,  II,  2,  V). 

Moon  and  some  older  satellites. 

V.  Unity  of  Oosmical  Phenomena. 


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